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List of Indo-European languages

This is a list of languages in the Indo-European language family. It contains a large number of individual languages, together spoken by roughly half the world's population.

Numbers of languages and language groups

The Indo-European languages include some 449 (SIL estimate, 2018 edition) languages spoken by about 3.5 billion people or more (roughly half of the world population). Most of the major languages belonging to language branches and groups in Europe, and western and southern Asia, belong to the Indo-European language family. This is thus the biggest language family in the world by number of mother tongue speakers (but not by number of languages: by this measure it is only the 3rd or 5th biggest). Eight of the top ten biggest languages, by number of native speakers, are Indo-European. One of these languages, English, is the de facto world lingua franca, with an estimate of over one billion second language speakers. The Indo-European language family has 10 known branches or subfamilies, of which eight are living and two are extinct. Most of the subfamilies or linguistic branches in this list contain many subgroups and individual languages. The relationships between these branches (how they are related to one another and branched from the ancestral proto-language) are a matter of further research and not yet fully known. There are some individual Indo-European languages that are unclassified within the language family; they are not yet classified in a branch and could constitute a separate branch. The 449 Indo-European languages identified in the SIL estimate, 2018 edition, are mostly living languages. If all the known extinct Indo-European languages are added, they number more than 800 or close to one thousand. This list includes all known Indo-European languages, living and extinct.

Definition of language

The distinction between a language and a dialect is not clear-cut and simple: in many areas there is a dialect continuum, with transitional dialects and languages. Further, there is no agreed standard criterion for what amount of differences in vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation and prosody are required to constitute a separate language, as opposed to a mere dialect. Mutual intelligibility can be considered, but there are closely related languages that are also mutual intelligible to some degree, even if it is an asymmetric intelligibility. Or there may be cases where between three dialects, A, B, and C, A and B are mutually intelligible, B and C are mutually intelligible, but A and C are not. In such circumstances grouping the three dielects becomes impossible. Because of this, in this list, several dialect groups and some individual dialects of languages are shown (in italics), especially if a language is or was spoken by a large number of people and over a large land area, but also if it has or had divergent dialects.

Summary of historical development

The ancestral population and language, Proto-Indo-Europeans that spoke Proto-Indo-European, are estimated to have lived about 4500 BCE (6500 BP). At some point in time, starting about 4000 BCE (6000 BP), this population expanded through migration and cultural influence. This started a complex process of population blend or population replacement, acculturation and language change of peoples in many regions of western and southern Eurasia. This process gave origin to many languages and branches of this language family. By around 1000 BCE, there were many millions of Indo-European speakers, and they lived in a vast geographical area which covered most of western and southern Eurasia (including western Central Asia). In the following two millennia the number of speakers of Indo-European languages increased even further. Indo-European languages continued to be spoken in large land areas, although most of western Central Asia and Asia Minor were lost to other language families (mainly Turkic) due to Turkic expansion, conquests and settlement (after the middle of the first millennium AD and the beginning and middle of the second millennium AD respectively) and also to Mongol invasions and conquests (which changed Central Asia ethnolinguistic composition). Another land area lost to non-Indo-European languages was today's Hungary, due to Magyar/Hungarian (Uralic language speakers) conquest and settlement. However, from about AD 1500 onwards, Indo-European languages expanded their territories to North Asia (Siberia), through Russian expansion, and North America, South America, Australia and New Zealand as the result of the age of European discoveries and European conquests through the expansions of the Portuguese, Spanish, French, English and the Dutch. (These peoples had the biggest continental or maritime empires in the world and their countries were major powers.) The contact between different peoples and languages, especially as a result of European colonization, also gave origin to the many pidgins, creoles and mixed languages that are mainly based in Indo-European languages (many of which are spoken in island groups and coastal regions).

Proto-Indo-European

Dating the split-offs of the main branches

Although all Indo-European languages descend from a common ancestor called Proto-Indo-European, the kinship between the subfamilies or branches (large groups of more closely related languages within the language family), that descend from other more recent proto-languages, is not the same because there are subfamilies that are closer or further, and they did not split-off at the same time, the affinity or kinship of Indo-European subfamilies or branches between themselves is still an unresolved and controversial issue and being investigated. However, there is some consensus that Anatolian was the first group of Indo-European (branch) to split-off from all the others and Tocharian was the second in which that happened. Using a mathematical analysis borrowed from evolutionary biology, Donald Ringe and Tandy Warnow propose the following tree of Indo-European branches:

David W. Anthony, following the methodology of Donald Ringe and Tandy Warnow, proposes the following sequence:

The list below follows Donald Ringe, Tandy Warnow and Ann Taylor classification tree for Indo-European branches. quoted in Anthony, David W. (2007), The Horse, the Wheel and Language: How Bronze-Age Riders from the Eurasian Steppes Shaped the Modern World, Princeton University Press. The Indo-European phylogenetic tree of subfamilies or branches is also based in Chang, Chundra & Hall 2015, pp. 199–200 and Hyllested & Joseph 2022, p. 241.

Anatolian languages (all extinct)

Unclassified (within Anatolian)

Possibly Anatolian

Tocharian languages (Agnean-Kuchean) (all extinct)

  • Proto-Agnean-Kuchean ("Proto-Tocharian")
  • North-Tocharian
  • Tocharian A (Agnean) (Turfanian / East Tocharian) (Agni / Ārśi)
  • Tocharian B (Kuchean) (West Tocharian) (Kuśiññe / Kučiññe)
  • South Tocharian
  • Tocharian C (Kroränian) (possible) (Krorainic / Lolanisch / South Tocharian)

Armenian language

  • Proto-Armenian (extinct)
  • Classical Armenian (գրաբար - grabar) (Old Armenian)
  • Liturgical Armenian
  • Middle Armenian (Միջին հայերէն - MiÇ°in Hayerēn) / Cilician Armenian (Õ¯Õ«Õ¬Õ«Õ¯Õ¥Õ¡Õ¶ հայերէն - Kilikyan Hayerēn)
  • Modern Armenian (աշխարհաբար - Ashkharhabar)
  • Armenian (հայերեն - Hayerēn) (Broad Armenian) (dialect continuum)
  • Armenian Standards
  • Eastern Armenian (Արեւելահայերեն - Arevelahayerēn)
  • Western Armenian (Արեւմտահայերէն - Arevmdahayerēn)
  • Armenian dialects
  • Eastern Armenian (dialect continuum)
  • -owm dialects
  • Araratian
  • Yerevan
  • Modern Eastern Armenian Standard
  • Jugha / Julfa
  • Zok (could be a distinct armenian language)
  • Agulis
  • Meghri
  • Artsakh / Karabagh Armenian
  • Eastern Armenian dialects in the diaspora
  • Tiflis / Tbilisi Armenian
  • Shamakha (nearly extinct)
  • Astrakhan Armenian (extinct)
  • Iranian Armenian dialect (Persian Armenian - պարսկահայերէն - Parskahayerēn)
  • Northwest Iran Armenian
  • Tabriz Armenian (Tavrezh)
  • North Iran Armenian
  • Tehran Armenian
  • Central Iran Armenian
  • New Jugha / New Julfa / Isfahan Armenian
  • -el dialects
  • Ardvin / Tayk
  • Nor Shirakan
  • Khoy
  • Maragha
  • Western Armenian (dialect continuum)
  • -gë dialects
  • Karin (Erzurum Armenian) / Upper Armenia (Bardzr Hayk')
  • Turuberan
  • Mush / Taron
  • Gavar
  • Van / Vaspurakan
  • Torfavan
  • Tigranakert / Aghdznik (Arzanene) (nearly extinct)
  • Kharpert-Yerznka / (Tsopk') (nearly extinct)
  • Shabin–Karahisar
  • Trapizon / Trabzon Armenian (nearly extinct)
  • Malatia (extinct)
  • Adiyaman
  • Cilician Armenian (nearly extinct)
  • Sueidia / Syrian Armenian
  • Vakıflı
  • Kessab
  • Latakia
  • Jisr al-Shughur
  • Anjar
  • Arabkir (almost extinct)
  • Akn (almost extinct)
  • Sebastia / Sivas Armenian (nearly extinct)
  • Tokat (almost extinct)
  • Western Armenian dialects in the diaspora
  • West Anatolia diaspora
  • Nicomedia / Izmit Armenian
  • Constantinople / Istanbul Armenian (nearly extinct)
  • Rodosto / Tekirdağ Armenian (extinct)
  • Smyrna / Izmir Armenian
  • Black Sea diaspora
  • Crimean Armenian
  • Nakhichevan-on-Don / Nor Nakhichevan - New Nakhichevan / Don Armenian
  • Levant diaspora
  • Kaghakatsi / Jerusalem Armenian (Armenian Quarter)
  • European diaspora
  • Austria-Hungary (extinct)
  • North American diaspora
  • South American diaspora
  • Australian diaspora
  • Homshetsi (could be a distinct archaic armenian language)

Hellenic languages

  • Proto-Greek (extinct)
  • Mycenaean Greek (extinct)
  • Ancient Greek (Classical Greek) (Ἑλληνική – Hellēnikḗ / Ἑλληνική γλῶσσα – Hellēnikḗ glōssa) (extinct) (Dialect continuum)
  • Ancient Greek dialects
  • East Greek
  • Central Group (extinct)
  • Aeolic Greek (extinct)
  • Thessalian
  • Boeotian
  • Lesbian / Lesbos Island
  • Asia Minor Aeolian
  • Arcadocypriot (extinct)
  • Arcadian
  • Cypriot
  • Pamphylian Greek (extinct)
  • Eastern Group
  • Ionic (extinct)
  • Ionic Literary Dialect
  • Homeric Greek / Epic Greek
  • Attic (extinct)
  • Koine Greek (ἡ κοινὴ διάλεκτος – hē koinḕ diálektos / Kοινὴ – Koinḕ)
  • Biblical Greek
  • Septuagint Greek
  • Jewish Koine Greek
  • New Testament Greek
  • Medieval Greek / Byzantine Greek) (Ῥωμαϊκή - Rōmaïkē, Romaic - Eastern Roman Empire Greek) (Dialect continuum)
  • Modern Greek
  • Greek (ελληνικά – Elliniká) (Broad Greek) (Dialect continuum)
  • Greek Standards
  • Katharevousa (Καθαρεύουσα – Katharevousa) / Old Standard Greek
  • Demotic (Δημοτική γλώσσα – Dimotikí glṓssa) / Modern Standard Greek
  • Modern Greek dialects
  • Southern dialects
  • Archaic dialects
  • Old Athenian
  • Aeginian
  • Kymian
  • Megaran
  • Maniot
  • Paomia-Cargèse Greek (Corsican Greek) (extinct)
  • Ionian-Peloponnesian
  • Peloponnesian
  • Ionian Islands
  • South Euboean
  • Cretan-Cycladian
  • Cretan
  • Cycladian
  • Southeastern
  • Chiote-Ikarian
  • Dodecanesian
  • Lycian Greek
  • Cypriot
  • North Epirote
  • Himariote
  • Northern dialects
  • Central dialects ("Semi-Northern")
  • North Euboean-Sporadic
  • Skyriot
  • Mykonian
  • Desfinan
  • Lefkadan
  • Northern Proper
  • Thessalian
  • South Epirote
  • Vourbianian
  • Kastorian
  • Naousan
  • Macedonian Greek
  • Sarakatsanian (Sarakatsanika)
  • Thracian Greek
  • Rumelian Greek
  • Constantinopolitan Greek
  • Bithynian Greek
  • Artakian
  • Western Anatolian
  • North Aegean
  • Lesbic (Lesbos Island Greek)
  • Lemnic (Lemnos Island Greek)
  • Smyrniote (Smyrna Greek)
  • Samian (Samos Island Greek)
  • Greco-Australian
  • Asia Minor Greek / Anatolian Greek
  • Silliot
  • Proto-Cappadocian
  • Pharasiot
  • Pontic-Cappadocian
  • Pontic Greek (ποντιακά – Pontiaká)
  • Western Pontic
  • Trepezuntine
  • Chaldiot
  • Mariupolitan Greek (Rumeíka)
  • Cappadocian Greek (Καππαδοκικά - Kappadokiká)
  • Italiot Greek
  • Salentinian Greek / Griko (Γκρίκο – Gríko)
  • Calabrian Greek / Grecanico (Γκραίκο – Graíko)
  • Yevanic (Judæo-Greek / Romaniote) (probably extinct)
  • West Ionic / Euboean
  • Chalcidician
  • Central Ionic / Cycladian Ionic / Northern Cycladian
  • East Ionic / Asia Minor Ionic
  • West Greek / Doric / Dorian (extinct)
  • Northwest Greek / Northwest Doric (extinct)
  • Locrian Greek (extinct)
  • Phocian-Delphian
  • Elean
  • Northwest Greek koine
  • Achaean Doric (extinct)
  • Achaean Doric
  • Achaean Doric Koine
  • Doric proper
  • Megarian
  • Corinthian
  • Argolic
  • Laconian
  • Tsakonian (Tσακώνικα – Tsakṓnika / A Tσακώνικα γρούσσα – A Tsakṓnika gloússa)
  • Messenian
  • Cretan
  • Cycladian Doric / Southern Cycladian
  • Thera-Cyrenaean
  • Thera (Santorini) Island
  • Cyrenaean Greek
  • Asia Minor Doric
  • Rhodian / Rhodes Island
  • Coan / Cos Island
  • Ancient Macedonian (extinct)

Albanian language

  • Proto-Albanian (extinct)
  • Albanian (Modern Albanian) (shqip / gjuha shqipe) (dialect continuum)
  • Albanian dialects
  • Gheg Albanian (gegnisht) (Northern Albanian dialect)
  • Northern Gheg
  • Northwestern Gheg
  • Malësia
  • Kraja
  • Shkodër and Lezhë
  • Northeastern Gheg
  • East Drin basin
  • Nikaj and Mertur
  • Tropoja
  • Kosovë and Metohi / Kosovo Albanian
  • Central / Middle Gheg
  • Mati
  • Upper Reka
  • Southern Gheg
  • Elbasan Gheg
  • Old Tirana
  • Peqin Province
  • Southern Gheg diaspora
  • Arbanasi
  • Istrian Albanian (extinct)
  • Tosk Albanian (toskërisht) (Southern Albanian dialect) (basis of Standard Albanian)
  • Northern Tosk
  • Northwest Tosk
  • Berat
  • Skrapar
  • Vlora
  • Northeast Tosk
  • Opar
  • Devoll
  • Korçë
  • Southeast
  • Middle Vjosa
  • Northern Tosk diaspora
  • Western Thracian Tosk (Western Thrace Albanians dialect)
  • Southern Tosk
  • Lab (Labërishtja)
  • East Drinos Valley
  • Bregdeti i Poshtëm
  • Vurg of Delvina
  • Cham (Çamërishte)
  • Souliot Cham (extinct)
  • Transitional Northern-Southern Tosk / Tosk diaspora
  • Mandritsa (Mandricë) Albanian / Bulgarian Albanian
  • Ukraine Albanian (Albanians in Ukraine dialect)
  • Arbërishte (Southern Italy Tosk Albanian)
  • Apulia Arbërishte
  • Molise Arbërishte / Campo Marino Albanian
  • Campania Arbërishte
  • Basilicata Arbërishte
  • Calabria Arbërishte / Calabro-Arbërishte
  • Sicilia Arbërishte
  • Arvanitika (Greece Tosk Albanian)
  • Viotia Arvanitika / Boeotia Arvanitika
  • Evia Arvanitika / Euboea Arvanitika
  • Attiki Arvanitika / Attica Arvanitika
  • Salamina Arvanitika
  • Peloponnese Arvanitika

Italic languages

Celtic languages

Germanic languages

Balto-Slavic languages

Baltic languages

Slavic languages

Indo-Iranian languages

Iranian languages

Nuristani languages

Indo-Aryan languages

Unclassified Indo-European languages (all extinct)

Indo-European languages whose relationship to other languages in the family is unclear

Possible Indo-European languages (all extinct)

Unclassified languages that may have been Indo-European or members of other language families (?)

See also

Notes

References

External links