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Classification of the Indigenous languages of the Americas

This is a list of different language classification proposals developed for the Indigenous languages of the Americas or Amerindian languages. The article is divided into North, Central, and South America sections; however, the classifications do not correspond to these divisions.

North America

Glottolog 4.1 (2019)

Glottolog 4.1 (2019) recognizes 42 independent families and 31 isolates in North America (73 total). The vast majority are (or were) spoken in the United States, with 26 families and 26 isolates (52 total).

North American languages families proposed in Glottolog 4.1
Families (42)
  1. Otomanguean (180)
  2. Arawakan (78)
  3. Uto-Aztecan (69)
  4. Algic (46)
  5. Athabaskan-Eyak-Tlingit (45)
  6. Mayan (33)
  7. Chibchan (27)
  8. Salishan (25)
  9. Mixe-Zoque (19)
  10. Siouan (18)
  11. Eskimo–Aleut (12)
  12. Totonacan (12)
  13. Cochimi-Yuman (11)
  14. Iroquoian (11)
  15. Miwok-Costanoan (11)
  16. Kiowa-Tanoan (8)
  17. Muskogean (7)
  18. Pomoan (7)
  19. Chumashan (6)
  20. Wakashan (6)
  21. Caddoan (5)
  22. Misumalpan (5)
  23. Sahaptian (5)
  24. Xincan (5)
  25. Chinookan (4)
  26. Huavean (4)
  27. Maiduan (4)
  28. Yokutsan (4)
  29. Kalapuyan (3)
  30. Shastan (3)
  31. Tequistlatecan (3)
  32. Tsimshian (3)
  33. Chimakuan (2)
  34. Coosan (2)
  35. Haida (2)
  36. Jicaquean (2)
  37. Keresan (2)
  38. Lencan (2)
  39. Palaihnihan (2)
  40. Tarascan (2)
  41. Wintuan (2)
  42. Yuki-Wappo (2)
Isolates (31)
  1. Adai
  2. Alsea-Yaquina
  3. Atakapa
  4. Beothuk
  5. Cayuse
  6. Chimariko
  7. Chitimacha
  8. Coahuilteco
  9. Comecrudan
  10. Cotoname
  11. Cuitlatec
  12. Esselen
  13. Guaicurian
  14. Karankawa
  15. Karok
  16. Klamath-Modoc
  17. Kutenai
  18. Maratino
  19. Molale
  20. Natchez
  21. Salinan
  22. Seri
  23. Siuslaw
  24. Takelma
  25. Timucua
  26. Tonkawa
  27. Tunica
  28. Washo
  29. Yana
  30. Yuchi
  31. Zuni

Gallatin (1836)

An early attempt at North American language classification was attempted by A. A. Albert Gallatin published in 1826, 1836, and 1848. Gallatin's classifications are missing several languages which are later recorded in the classifications by Daniel G. Brinton and John Wesley Powell. (Gallatin supported the assimilation of indigenous peoples to Euro-American culture.)

(Current terminology is indicated parenthetically in italics.)

Families

  1. Algonkin-Lenape &nbsp;<small>(=Algonquian)</small>
  2. Athapascas &nbsp;<small>(=Athabaskan)</small>
  3. Catawban &nbsp;<small>(=Catawba&nbsp;+&nbsp;Woccons)</small>
  4. Eskimaux &nbsp;<small>(=Eskimoan)</small>
  5. Iroquois &nbsp;<small>(=Northern Iroquoian)</small>
  6. Cherokees &nbsp;<small>(=Southern Iroquoian)</small>
  7. Muskogee &nbsp;<small>(=Eastern Muskogean)</small>
  8. Chahtas &nbsp;<small>(=Western Muskogean)</small>
  9. Sioux &nbsp;<small>(=Siouan)</small>

Languages

Gallatin (1848)

Families

  1. Algonquian languages
  2. Athabaskan languages
  3. Catawban languages
  4. Eskimoan languages
  5. Iroquoian languages (Northern)
  6. Iroquoian languages (Southern)
  7. Muskogean languages
  8. Siouan languages

Languages

Powell's (1892) "Fifty-eight"

John Wesley Powell, an explorer who served as director of the Bureau of American Ethnology, published a classification of 58 "stocks" that is the "cornerstone" of genetic classifications in North America. Powell's classification was influenced by Gallatin to a large extent.

John Wesley Powell was in a race with Daniel G. Brinton to publish the first comprehensive classification of North America languages (although Brinton's classification also covered South and Central America). As a result of this competition, Brinton was not allowed access to the linguistic data collected by Powell's fieldworkers.

(More current names are indicated parenthetically.)

Rivet (1924)

Paul Rivet (1924) lists a total of 46 independent language families in North and Central America. Olive and Janambre are extinct languages of Tamaulipas, Mexico.

North American families
  1. Algonkin
  2. Beothuk
  3. Eskimo
  4. Hoka
  5. Iroquois (Irokwa)
  6. Kaddo
  7. Keres
  8. Kiowa
  9. Klamath
  10. Kutenai
  11. Muskhogi
  12. Na-Dene
  13. Penutia
  14. Sahaptin
  15. Salish
  16. Siou (Syu)
  17. Tano
  18. Timukua
  19. Chimakum
  20. Tunika
  21. Uto-Azten
  22. Waiilatpu
  23. Wakash
  24. Yuki
  25. Yuchi
  26. Zuñi
Central American families
  1. Amusgo
  2. Kuikatec
  3. Kuitlatek
  4. Lenka
  5. Maya
  6. Miskito-Sumo-Matagalpa
  7. Mixe-Zoke
  8. Mixtek
  9. Olive
  10. Otomi
  11. Paya
  12. Subtiaba
  13. Tarask (Michoacano)
  14. Totonak
  15. Chinantek
  16. Waїkuri
  17. Xanambre (Janambre)
  18. Xikake (Jicaque)
  19. Xinka (Jinca, Sinca)
  20. Zapotek

Sapir (1929): Encyclopædia Britannica

Below is Edward Sapir's (1929) famous Encyclopædia Britannica classification. Note that Sapir's classification was controversial at the time and it additionally was an original proposal (unusual for general encyclopedias). Sapir was part of a "lumper" movement in Native American language classification. Sapir himself writes of his classification: "A more far-reaching scheme than Powell's [1891 classification], suggestive but not demonstrable in all its features at the present time" (Sapir 1929: 139). Sapir's classifies all the languages in North America into only 6 families: Eskimo–Aleut, Algonkin–Wakashan, Na-Dene, Penutian, Hokan–Siouan, and Aztec–Tanoan. Sapir's classification (or something derivative) is still commonly used in general languages-of-the-world type surveys. (Note that the question marks that appear in Sapir's list below are present in the original article.)

"Proposed Classification of American Indian Languages North of Mexico (and Certain Languages of Mexico and Central America)"

Voegelin & Voegelin (1965): The "Consensus" of 1964

The Voegelin & Voegelin (1965) classification was the result of a conference of Americanist linguists held at Indiana University in 1964. This classification identifies 16 main genetic units.

Chumashan, Comecrudan, and Coahuiltecan are included in Hokan with "reservations". Esselen is included in Hokan with "strong reservations". Tsimshian and Zuni are included in Penutian with reservations.

Campbell & Mithun (1979): The "Black Book"

Campbell & Mithun's 1979 classification is more conservative, since it insists on more rigorous demonstration of genetic relationship before grouping. Thus, many of the speculative phyla of previous authors are "split".

Goddard (1996), Campbell (1997), Mithun (1999)

(preliminary)

Families

  1. Algic
  2. Algonquian
  3. Wiyot (> Ritwan?)
  4. Yurok (> Ritwan?)
  5. Na-Dene
  6. Eyak-Athabaskan
  7. Eyak
  8. Athabaskan
  9. Tlingit
  10. Caddoan (> Macro-Siouan?)
  11. Chimakuan
  12. Chinookan (> Penutian?)
  13. Chumashan [chúmash]
  14. Comecrudan
  15. Coosan [kus] (> Coast Penutian?)
  16. Eskimo–Aleut
  17. Eskimoan
  18. Aleut = Unangan
  19. Iroquoian
  20. Kalapuyan [kalapúyan]
  21. Kiowa–Tanoan
  22. Maiduan
  23. Muskogean
  24. Palaihnihan (Achumawi–Atsugewi)
  25. Pomoan
  26. Sahaptian
  27. Salishan
  28. Shastan
  29. Siouan–Catawban
  30. Siouan
  31. Catawban
  32. Tsimshianic
  33. Utian
  34. Miwok
  35. Costanoan
  36. Utaztecan
  37. Numic = Plateau
  38. Tübatulabal = Kern
  39. Takic = Southern California
  40. Hopi = Pueblo
  41. Tepiman = Pimic
  42. Taracahitic
  43. Tubar
  44. Corachol
  45. Aztecan
  46. Wakashan
  47. Kwakiutlan
  48. Nootkan
  49. Wintuan (> Coast Penutian?)
  50. Yokutsan
  51. Yuman–Cochimi
  52. Yuman
  53. Cochimi

Isolates

  1. Adai
  2. Alsea [alsi] (> Coast Penutian?)
  3. Atakapa (> Tunican?)
  4. Beothuk (unclassifiable?)
  5. Cayuse
  6. Chimariko
  7. Chitimacha (> Tunican?)
  8. Coahuilteco
  9. Cotoname = Carrizo de Camargo
  10. Esselen
  11. Haida
  12. Karankawa
  13. Karuk
  14. Keres
  15. Klamath-Modoc
  16. Kootenai
  17. Molala
  18. Natchez
  19. Salinan
  20. Siuslaw (> Coast Penutian?)
  21. Takelma
  22. Timucua
  23. Tonkawa
  24. Tunica (> Tunican?)
  25. Wappo (> Yuki–Wappo)
  26. Washo
  27. Yana
  28. Yuchi (> Siouan)
  29. Yuki (> Yuki–Wappo)
  30. Zuni

Stocks

The unity of Penutian languages outside Mexico is considered probable by many linguists:

  1. Tsimshianic
  2. Chinookan
  3. Takelma
  4. Kalapuya (not close to Takelma: Tarpent & Kendall 1998)
  5. Maidun
  6. Oregon Coast-Wintu (Whistler 1977, Golla 1997)
  7. Alsea
  8. Coosan
  9. Siuslaw
  10. Wintuan
  11. Plateau
  12. Sahaptian
  13. Klamath
  14. Molala
  15. Cayuse ? (poor data)
  16. Yok-Utian ?
  17. Yana
  18. Yana

Siouan–Yuchi "probable"; Macro-Siouan likely:

  1. Iroquoian–Caddoan
  2. Iroquoian
  3. Caddoan
  4. Siouan–Yuchi
  5. Siouan–Catawban
  6. Yuchi

Natchez–Muskogean most likely of the Gulf hypothesis

  1. Natchez
  2. Muskogean

Hokan: most promising proposals

  1. Karok
  2. Chimariko
  3. Shastan
  4. Palaihnihan
  5. Yana
  6. Washo
  7. Pomoan
  8. Esselen
  9. Salinan
  10. Yuman–Cochimi
  11. Seri

"Unlikely" to be Hokan:

Chumashan
Tonkawa
Karankawa

Subtiaba–Tlapanec is likely part of Otomanguean (Rensch 1977, Oltrogge 1977).

Aztec–Tanoan is "undemonstrated"; Mosan is a Sprachbund.

Campbell (2024)

Lyle Campbell (2024) proposed the following list of 30 uncontroversial indigenous language families and 24 isolates north of Mexico – a total of 54 independent families and isolates. Language families deemed major are highlighted in bold. The remaining language families all considered small.

Families
  1. Algic ()
  2. Caddoan (5)
  3. Cochimi-Yuman (12)
  4. Eskimo-Aleut (13)
  5. Iroquoian (13)
  6. Kiowa-Tanoan (7)
  7. Muskogean (7)
  8. Na-Dene ()
  9. Plateau (4)
  10. Salishan (23)
  11. Siouan-Catawban (17)
  12. Utian (15)
  13. Uto-Aztecan (, of which are in Mexico and Central America)
  14. Wakashan (6)
  15. Chimakuan (2)
  16. Chinookan (3)
  17. Chumashan (6)
  18. Comecrudan (3)
  19. Coosan (2)
  20. Kalapuyan (3)
  21. Keresan (2)
  22. Maiduan (4)
  23. Palaihnihan (2)
  24. Pomoan (7)
  25. Salinan (2)
  26. Shastan (3~4)
  27. Tsimshianic (4)
  28. Wintuan (2)
  29. Yokutsan (6~7)
  30. Yukian (2)
Isolates
  1. Adai
  2. Alsea
  3. Atakapa
  4. Beothuk
  5. Cayuse
  6. Chimariko
  7. Chitimacha
  8. Coahuilteco
  9. Cotoname
  10. Esselen
  11. Haida
  12. Karankawa
  13. Karuk
  14. Kootenai
  15. Natchez
  16. Siuslaw
  17. Takelma
  18. Tonkawa
  19. Timucua
  20. Tunica
  21. Washo
  22. Yana
  23. Yuchi
  24. Zuni

Mesoamerica

(Consensus conservative classification)

Families

  • Uto-Aztecan (Other branches outside Mesoamerica. See North America) languages
# Corachol (Cora–Huichol)
# Aztecan (Nahua–Pochutec)
# Otopamean
# Popolocan–Mazatecan
# Subtiaba–Tlapanec
# Amuzgo
# Mixtecan
# Chatino–Zapotec
# Chinantec
# Chiapanec–Mangue (extinct)
# Paya

Isolates

Proposed stocks

  • Hokan (see North America)
# Tequistlatec-Jicaque
# Totonac–Tepehua
# Huave
# Mixe–Zoque
# Mayan
# Chibchan
# Misumalpan
# Xinca
# Lenca

South America

Notable early classifications of classifications of indigenous South American language families include those by Filippo Salvatore Gilii (1780–84), Lorenzo Hervás y Panduro (1784–87), Daniel Garrison Brinton (1891), Paul Rivet (1924), John Alden Mason (1950), and Čestmír Loukotka (1968). Other classifications include those of Jacinto Jijón y Caamaño (1940–45), Antonio Tovar (1961; 1984), and Jorge A. Suárez (1974).

Glottolog 4.1 (2019)

Glottolog 4.1 (2019) recognizes 44 independent families and 64 isolates in South America.

South American languages families proposed in Glottolog 4.1
Families (44)
  1. Arawakan (78)
  2. Tupian (71)
  3. Pano-Tacanan (45)
  4. Quechuan (45)
  5. Cariban (42)
  6. Mayan (33)
  7. Nuclear-Macro-Jê (30)
  8. Chibchan (27)
  9. Tucanoan (26)
  10. Chapacuran (12)
  11. Chocoan (9)
  12. Huitotoan (7)
  13. Matacoan (7)
  14. Arawan (6)
  15. Barbacoan (6)
  16. Nambiquaran (6)
  17. Zaparoan (6)
  18. Guahiboan (5)
  19. Guaicuruan (5)
  20. Lengua-Mascoy (5)
  21. Yanomamic (5)
  22. Aymaran (4)
  23. Chicham (4)
  24. Chonan (4)
  25. Jodi-Saliban (4)
  26. Kamakanan (4)
  27. Naduhup (4)
  28. Bororoan (3)
  29. Cahuapanan (3)
  30. Charruan (3)
  31. Kawesqar (3)
  32. Peba-Yagua (3)
  33. Zamucoan (3)
  34. Araucanian (2)
  35. Boran (2)
  36. Harakmbut (2)
  37. Hibito-Cholon (2)
  38. Huarpean (2)
  39. Kakua-Nukak (2)
  40. Katukinan (2)
  41. Otomaco-Taparita (2)
  42. Puri-Coroado (2)
  43. Ticuna-Yuri (2)
  44. Uru-Chipaya (2)
Isolates (64)
  1. Aewa
  2. Aikanã
  3. Andaqui
  4. Andoque
  5. Arutani
  6. Atacame
  7. Betoi-Jirara
  8. Camsá
  9. Candoshi-Shapra
  10. Canichana
  11. Cayubaba
  12. Chiquitano
  13. Chono
  14. Cofán
  15. Culli
  16. Fulniô
  17. Guachi
  18. Guamo
  19. Guató
  20. Irántxe-Münkü
  21. Itonama
  22. Jirajaran
  23. Kanoê
  24. Kariri
  25. Kunza
  26. Kwaza
  27. Leco
  28. Lule
  29. Máku (Jukude)
  30. Matanawí
  31. Mato Grosso Arára
  32. Mochica
  33. Mosetén-Chimané
  34. Movima
  35. Muniche
  36. Mure
  37. Omurano
  38. Oti
  39. Páez
  40. Pankararú
  41. Payagua
  42. Pirahã
  43. Puelche
  44. Puinave
  45. Pumé
  46. Puquina
  47. Ramanos
  48. Sapé
  49. Sechuran
  50. Tallán
  51. Taruma
  52. Taushiro
  53. Timote-Cuica
  54. Tinigua
  55. Trumai
  56. Tuxá
  57. Urarina
  58. Vilela
  59. Waorani
  60. Warao
  61. Xukurú
  62. Yámana
  63. Yuracaré
  64. Yurumanguí

Rivet (1924)

Paul Rivet (1924) lists 77 independent language families of South America.

Mason (1950)

Classification of South American languages by J. Alden Mason (1950):

Chibchan
Languages probably of Chibchan affinities
Languages of doubtful Chibchan relationships
Language families of central South America
Arawakan
Languages of probable Arawakan affinities
Languages of possible Arawakan relationships
Cariban
Languages of probable Cariban affiliations
Macro-Tupí-Guaranian
Northern tropical lowland independent families
Southern tropical lowland independent families
Macro-Jê
Other language families of eastern Brazil
Southernmost languages

Loukotka (1968)

Čestmír Loukotka (1968) proposed a total of 117 indigenous language families (called stocks by Loukotka) and isolates of South America.

Languages of Paleo-American tribes
Languages of tropical forest tribes
Languages of Andean tribes

Kaufman (1990)

Families and isolates

Terrence Kaufman's classification is meant to be a rather conservative genetic grouping of the languages of South America (and a few in Central America). He has 118 genetic units. Kaufman believes for these 118 units "that there is little likelihood that any of the groups recognized here will be broken apart". Kaufman uses more specific terminology than only language family, such as language area, emergent area, and language complex, where he recognizes issues such as partial mutual intelligibility and dialect continuums. The list below collapses these into simply families. Kaufman's list is numbered and grouped by "geolinguistic region". The list below is presented in alphabetic order. Kaufman uses an anglicized orthography for his genetic units, which is mostly used only by himself. His spellings have been retained below.

Stocks

In addition to his conservative list, Kaufman list several larger "stocks" which he evaluates. The names of the stocks are often obvious hyphenations of two members; for instance, the Páes-Barbakóa stock consists of the Páesan and Barbakóan families. If the composition is not obvious, it is indicated parenthetically. Kaufman puts question marks by Kechumara and Mosetén-Chon stocks.

"Good" stocks:

"Probable" stocks:

"Promising" stocks:

"Maybe" stocks:

Clusters and networks

Kaufman's largest groupings are what he terms clusters and networks. Clusters are equivalent to macro-families (or phyla or superfamilies). Networks are composed of clusters. Kaufman views all of these larger groupings to be hypothetical and his list is to be used as a means to identify which hypotheses most need testing.

Campbell (2012)

Lyle Campbell (2012) proposed the following list of 53 uncontroversial indigenous language families and 55 isolates of South America – a total of 108 independent families and isolates. Language families with 9 or more languages are highlighted in bold. The remaining language families all have 6 languages or fewer.

Families
  1. Arawakan (Maipurean, Maipuran) (~65) – widespread
  2. Cariban (~40) – Brazil, Venezuela, Colombia, etc.
  3. Chapacuran (Txapakúran) (9) – Brazil, Bolivia
  4. Chibchan (23) – Colombia, Venezuela, Panama, Costa Rica
  5. Jêan (12) – Brazil
  6. Pano–Takanan (~30) – Brazil, Peru, Bolivia
  7. Makúan (Makú–Puinavean, Puinavean, Guaviaré–Japurá) (8) – Brazil, Colombia, Venezuela
  8. Quechuan (23 ?) – Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina
  9. Tukanoan (Tucanoan) (~20) – Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil
  10. Tupían (~55) – Brazil, Paraguay, Bolivia, etc.
  11. Arawan (Arahuan, Arauan, Arawán) (6) – Brazil, Peru
  12. Aymaran (2) – Bolivia, Peru
  13. Barbacoan (5) – Colombia, Ecuador
  14. Bororoan (3) – Brazil
  15. Cahuapanan (2) – Peru
  16. Cañar–Puruhá (2; uncertain) – Ecuador
  17. Charruan (3) – Uruguay, Argentina
  18. Chipaya–Uru (3) – Bolivia
  19. Chocoan (2–6) – Colombia, Panama
  20. Cholonan (2) – Peru
  21. Chonan (Chon) (3) – Argentina
  22. Guaicuruan (Waykuruan) (5) – Argentina, Paraguay, Brazil
  23. Guajiboan (4) – Colombia
  24. Harákmbut–Katukinan (3; uncertain) – Peru, Brazil
  25. Huarpean (Warpean) (2) – Argentina
  26. Jabutían (2) – Brazil
  27. Jirajaran (3) – Venezuela
  28. Jivaroan (4 ?) – Peru, Ecuador
  29. Kamakanan (5 ?) – Brazil
  30. Karajá (2 ?) – Brazil
  31. Karirian (Karirí) (4) – Brazil
  32. Krenákan (Botocudoan, Aimoré) (3) – Brazil
  33. Lule–Vilelan (2) – Argentina
  34. Mascoyan (4) – Paraguay
  35. Matacoan (4) – Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia
  36. Maxakalían (3) – Brazil
  37. Mosetenan (2) – Bolivia
  38. Muran (4, only 1 living) – Brazil
  39. Nambikwaran (5 ?) – Brazil
  40. Qawasqaran (Kaweskaran, Alacalufan) (2–3) – Chile
  41. Otomacoan (2) – Venezuela
  42. Paezan (1–3; isolate ?) – Colombia
  43. Purían (2) – Brazil
  44. Sáliban (Sálivan) (3 ?) – Venezuela, Colombia
  45. Sechura–Catacaoan (3) – Peru
  46. Timotean (2) – Venezuela
  47. Tikuna–Yuri – Peru, Colombia, Brazil
  48. Tiniguan (2) – Colombia
  49. Yaguan (3) – Peru
  50. Witotoan (Huitotoan) (5) – Colombia, Peru
  51. Yanomaman (4) – Venezuela, Brazil
  52. Zamucoan (2) – Paraguay, Bolivia
  53. Zaparoan (3) – Peru, Ecuador
Isolates
  1. Aikaná – Brazil
  2. Andaquí – Colombia
  3. Andoque (Andoke) – Colombia, Peru
  4. Atacameño (Cunza, Kunza, Atacama, Lipe) – Chile, Bolivia, Argentina
  5. Awaké (Ahuaqué, Uruak) – Venezuela, Brazil
  6. Baenan – Brazil
  7. Betoi – Colombia (small family ?)
  8. Camsá (Sibundoy, Coche) – Colombia
  9. Candoshi (Candoxi, Maina, Shapra, Murato) – Peru
  10. Canichana – Bolivia
  11. Cayuvava (Cayuwaba, Cayubaba) – Bolivia
  12. Chiquitano – Bolivia
  13. Chono – Chile
  14. Cofán (A’ingaé) – Colombia, Ecuador
  15. Culle – Peru
  16. Gamela – Brazil
  17. Guachí – Brazil
  18. Guató – Brazil
  19. Irantxe (Iranche, Münkü) – Brazil
  20. Itonama (Saramo, Machoto) – Bolivia, Brazil
  21. Jeikó (Jeicó, Jaiko) – Brazil (Macro–Jêan ?)
  22. Jotí (Yuwana) – Venezuela
  23. Kaliana (Sapé, Caliana, Cariana, Chirichano) – Venezuela
  24. Kapixaná (Kanoé) – Brazil
  25. Koayá (Kwaza, Koaiá, Arara) – Brazil
  26. Máku (Jukude) – Brazil
  27. Mapudungu (Mapudungun, Araucano, Mapuche, Maputongo) – Chile, Argentina
  28. Matanauí – Brazil
  29. Mochica (Yunga, Yunca, Chimú, Mochica, Muchic) – Peru
  30. Movima – Bolivia
  31. Munichi (Muniche, Munichino, Otanabe) – Peru
  32. Natú (Peagaxinan) – Brazil
  33. Ofayé (Opayé, Ofayé–Xavante) – Brazil (Macro–Jêan ?)
  34. Omurano (Humurana, Numurana) – Peru
  35. Otí – Brazil
  36. Pankararú (Pancararu, Pancarurú, Brancararu) – Brazil
  37. Payaguá – Paraguay
  38. Puquina – Bolivia
  39. Rikbaktsá (Aripaktsá, Eribatsa, Eripatsa, Canoeiro) – Brazil (Macro–Jêan ?)
  40. Sabela (Huao, Auca, Huaorani, Auishiri) – Ecuador
  41. Taruma (Taruamá) – Brazil, Guyana
  42. Taushiro (Pinchi, Pinche) – Peru
  43. Tequiraca (Tekiraka, Aushiri, Auishiri, Avishiri) – Peru
  44. Trumai (Trumaí) – Brazil
  45. Tuxá – Brazil
  46. Urarina (Simacu, Kachá, Itucale) – Peru
  47. Wamoé (Huamoé, Huamoi, Uamé, Umã; Araticum, Atikum) – Brazil
  48. Warao (Guarao, Warau, Guaruno) – Guyana, Suriname, Venezuela
  49. Xokó – Brazil
  50. Xukurú – Brazil
  51. Yagan (Yaghan, Yamana, Yámana) – Chile
  52. Yaruro (Pumé, Llaruro, Yaruru, Yuapín) – Venezuela
  53. Yaté (Furniô, Fornió, Carnijó; Iatê) – Brazil
  54. Yuracaré – Bolivia
  55. Yurumangui – Colombia

Campbell (2012) leaves out the classifications of these languages as uncertain.

  • Boran – Brazil, Colombia
  • Esmeralda – Ecuador
  • Guamo – Venezuela
  • Leko – Bolivia
  • Mure – Bolivia
  • Puinave – Colombia, Venezuela

Jolkesky (2016)

Jolkesky (2016) lists 43 language families and 66 language isolates (and/or unclassified languages) in South America – a total of 109 independent families and isolates.

  • † = extinct
Families
  1. Andoke-Urekena
  2. Arawa
  3. Barbakoa
  4. Bora-Muinane
  5. Chacha-Cholon-Hibito
  6. Chapakura-Wañam
  7. Charrua
  8. Chibcha
  9. Choko
  10. Chon
  11. Duho
  12. Guahibo
  13. Harakmbet-Katukina
  14. Jaqi
  15. Jirajara â€Â
  16. Jivaro
  17. Karib
  18. Kawapana
  19. Kechua
  20. Lengua-Maskoy
  21. Macro-Arawak
  22. Macro-Mataguayo-Guaykuru
  23. Macro-Jê
  24. Mapudungun
  25. Moseten-Tsimane
  26. Mura-Matanawi
  27. Nambikwara
  28. Otomako-Taparita â€Â
  29. Pano-Takana
  30. Peba-Yagua
  31. Puinave-Nadahup
  32. Puri â€Â
  33. Tallan â€Â
  34. Timote-Kuika
  35. Tinigua-Pamigua
  36. Tukano
  37. Tupi
  38. Uru-Chipaya
  39. Warpe â€Â
  40. Witoto-Okaina
  41. Yanomami
  42. Zamuko
  43. Zaparo
Isolates and unclassified languages
  1. Aikanã
  2. Andaki â€Â
  3. Arara do Rio Branco
  4. Arutani
  5. Atakame â€Â
  6. Atikum â€Â
  7. Aushiri â€Â
  8. Chono â€Â
  9. Guamo â€Â
  10. Guato
  11. Gününa Këna
  12. Iranche/Myky
  13. Itonama
  14. Kakan â€Â
  15. Kamsa
  16. Kañari â€Â
  17. Kanichana
  18. Kanoe
  19. Kawesqar
  20. Kayuvava
  21. Kerandi â€Â
  22. Kimbaya â€Â
  23. Kingnam â€Â
  24. Kofan
  25. Komechingon â€Â
  26. Koraveka â€Â
  27. Kueva â€Â
  28. Kulle â€Â
  29. Kunza â€Â
  30. Kuruminaka â€Â
  31. Kwaza
  32. Leko
  33. Lule â€Â
  34. Maku
  35. Malibu â€Â
  36. Mochika â€Â
  37. Mokana â€Â
  38. Morike â€Â
  39. Movima
  40. Muzo-Kolima â€Â
  41. Omurano
  42. Oti â€Â
  43. Paez
  44. Panche â€Â
  45. Pijao â€Â
  46. Puruha â€Â
  47. Sanaviron â€Â
  48. Sape
  49. Sechura â€Â
  50. Tarairiu â€Â
  51. Taruma
  52. Taushiro
  53. Tekiraka
  54. Trumai
  55. Tuxa â€Â
  56. Umbra
  57. Urarina
  58. Vilela
  59. Waorani
  60. Warao
  61. Xukuru â€Â
  62. Yagan
  63. Yaruro
  64. Yurakare
  65. Yurumangui â€Â
  66. Zenu â€Â
Creoles, pidgins, and secret languages
  1. Kallawaya
  2. Maskoy Pidgin
  3. Media Lengua
  4. Ndyuka-Tiriyo

Campbell (2024)

Lyle Campbell (2024) proposed the following list of 47 uncontroversial indigenous language families and 53 isolates of South America – a total of 100 independent families and isolates. Language families with more than 6 languages are highlighted in bold. The remaining language families all have 6 languages or fewer.

Families
  1. Arawakan (Maipurean, Maipuran) (~65–80) – widespread
  2. Cariban (~40–50) – Brazil, Venezuela, Colombia, etc.
  3. Chapacuran (Txapakúran) (10) – Brazil, Bolivia
  4. Chibchan (23) – Colombia, Venezuela, Panama, Costa Rica
  5. Macro-Jê Sensu Stricto (~33) – Brazil
  6. Pano–Takanan (~39) – Brazil, Peru, Bolivia
  7. Quechuan (23 ?) – Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina
  8. Tukanoan (Tucanoan) (~29, 8 extinct) – Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Brazil
  9. Tupían (~55–70) – Brazil, Paraguay, Bolivia, etc.
  10. Arawan (Arahuan, Arauan, Arawán) (6?) – Brazil, Peru
  11. Aymaran (2) – Bolivia, Peru
  12. Barbacoan (5) – Colombia, Ecuador
  13. Boran (3) – Brazil, Colombia
  14. Bororoan (3) – Brazil
  15. Cahuapanan (3, possibly 2) – Peru
  16. Cañar–Puruhá (2; uncertain) – Ecuador
  17. Charruan (3) – Uruguay, Argentina
  18. Chicham (4) – Peru, Ecuador
  19. Chocoan (3?) – Colombia, Panama
  20. Cholonan (2) – Peru
  21. Chonan (Chon) (5–6?) – Argentina
  22. Enlhet–Enenlhet Mascoyan (6) – Paraguay
  23. Guaicuruan (Waykuruan) (5) – Argentina, Paraguay, Brazil
  24. Guajiboan (4) – Colombia
  25. Harákmbut–Katukinan (4) – Peru, Brazil
  26. Huarpean (Warpean) (2) – Argentina
  27. Jirajaran (3) – Venezuela
  28. Kakua–Nukak (2) – Colombia, Brazil
  29. Karirian (Karirí) (4) – Brazil
  30. Kaweskaran (Qawasqaran, Alacalufan) (3?) – Chile
  31. Lule–Vilelan (2) – Argentina
  32. Mapudungun (Mapudungu, Araucano, Mapuche, Maputongo) (2) – Chile, Argentina
  33. Matacoan (4) – Argentina, Paraguay, Bolivia
  34. Nadahup (4) – Colombia, Venezuela, Brazil
  35. Nambikwaran (4 ?) – Brazil
  36. Otomacoan (2) – Venezuela
  37. Sáliban (Sálivan) (3 ?) – Venezuela, Colombia
  38. Tallán (2) – Peru
  39. Tikuna–Yuri (3) – Peru, Colombia, Brazil
  40. Timotean (2) – Venezuela
  41. Tiniguan (2) – Colombia
  42. Uru–Chipaya (3) – Bolivia
  43. Yaguan (3) – Peru
  44. Witotoan (Huitotoan) (5) – Colombia, Peru
  45. Yanomaman (4) – Venezuela, Brazil
  46. Zamucoan (2) – Paraguay, Bolivia
  47. Zaparoan (3–8?) – Peru, Ecuador
Isolates
  1. Aikaná – Brazil
  2. Andaquí – Colombia
  3. Andoque (Andoke) – Colombia, Peru
  4. Arara do Rio Branco – Brazil
  5. Arutani (Ahuaqué, Uruak) – Venezuela, Brazil
  6. Atacameño (Cunza, Kunza, Atacama, Lipe) – Chile, Bolivia, Argentina
  7. Betoi–Jirara – Colombia
  8. Candoshi (Candoxi, Maina, Shapra, Murato) – Peru
  9. Canichana – Bolivia
  10. Cayuvava (Cayuwaba, Cayubaba) – Bolivia
  11. Chiquitano – Bolivia
  12. Chono – Chile
  13. Cofán (A'ingaé) – Colombia, Ecuador
  14. Culle – Peru
  15. Esmeralda – Ecuador
  16. Guachí – Brazil
  17. Guamo – Venezuela
  18. Guató – Brazil
  19. Iatê (Furniô, Fornió, Carnijó; Yaté) – Brazil
  20. Irantxe (Iranche, Münkü) – Brazil
  21. Itonama (Saramo, Machoto) – Bolivia, Brazil
  22. Jotí (Yuwana) – Venezuela
  23. Kamsá (Sibundoy, Coche) – Colombia
  24. Kanoê (Kanoé, Kapixaná) – Brazil
  25. Kwaza (Koayá, Koaiá, Arara) – Brazil
  26. Leko – Bolivia
  27. Máku (Jukude) – Brazil
  28. Matanawí – Brazil
  29. Mochica (Yunga, Yunca, Chimú, Mochica, Muchic) – Peru
  30. Moseten–Chimane (Mosetén) – Bolivia
  31. Movima – Bolivia
  32. Munichi (Muniche, Munichino, Otanabe) – Peru
  33. Omurano (Humurana, Numurana) – Peru
  34. Paezan (1–3; smal family ?) – Colombia
  35. Payaguá – Paraguay
  36. Pirahã (Muran) (possibly family of close languages) – Brazil
  37. Puinave (Wãnsöhöt) – Colombia, Venezuela
  38. Purí–Coroado – Brazil
  39. Puquina – Bolivia
  40. Sapé (Kaliana, Caliana, Cariana, Chirichano) – Venezuela
  41. Sechura? – Peru
  42. Taruma (Taruamá) – Brazil, Guyana
  43. Taushiro (Pinchi, Pinche) – Peru
  44. Tequiraca (Tekiraka, Aushiri, Auishiri, Avishiri) – Peru
  45. Trumai (Trumaí) – Brazil
  46. Urarina (Simacu, Kachá, Itucale) – Peru
  47. Waorani (Sabela, Huao, Auca, Huaorani, Auishiri) – Ecuador
  48. Warao (Guarao, Warau, Guaruno) – Guyana, Suriname, Venezuela
  49. Xukurú – Brazil
  50. Yagan (Yaghan, Yamana, Yámana) – Chile
  51. Yaruro (Pumé, Llaruro, Yaruru, Yuapín) – Venezuela
  52. Yuracaré – Bolivia
  53. Yurumangui – Colombia

All of the Americas

Swadesh (1960 or earlier)

Morris Swadesh further consolidated Sapir's North American classification and expanded it to group all indigenous languages of the Americas in just 6 families, 5 of which were entirely based in the Americas.

  1. Vasco-Dene languages included the Eskimo–Aleut, Na-Dene, Wakashan and Kutenai families along with most of the languages of Eurasia.
  2. Macro-Hokan roughly comprised a combination of Sapir's Hokan–Siouan and Almosan families and expanded into Central America including the Jicaque language.
  3. Macro-Mayan comprising Mayan along with Sapir's Penutian and Aztec-Tanoan families, the Otomanguean languages and various languages of Central and South America including the Chibchan languages, the Paezan languages and the Tucanoan languages.
  4. Macro-Quechua comprising the Zuni language, the Purépecha language and various languages of South America including Quechua, the Aymara language, the Panoan languages and most of the various other languages of Patagonia and the Andes.
  5. Macro-Carib, an almost entirely South American family including the Carib languages, the Macro-Jê languages and the Jirajara languages, albeit including some Caribbean languages.
  6. Macro-Arawak, a family primarily confined to South America and its component families included the Arawakan languages and the Tupian languages. However, it also was proposed to include the Taíno language in the Caribbean and the Timucua language in Florida.

Greenberg (1960, 1987)

Joseph Greenberg's classification in his 1987 book Language in the Americas is best known for the highly controversial assertion that all North, Central and South American language families other than Eskimo–Aleut and Na-Dene including Haida, are part of an Amerind macrofamily. This assertion of only three major American language macrofamilies is supported by DNA evidence, although the DNA evidence does not provide support for the details of his classification.

  1. Northern Amerind
  2. Almosan–Keresiouan
  3. Almosan
  4. Algic
  5. Kutenai
  6. Mosan
  7. Wakashan
  8. Salish
  9. Chimakuan
  10. Caddoan
  11. Keres
  12. Siouan
  13. Iroquoian
  14. Penutian
  15. California Penutian
  16. Maidu
  17. Miwok–Costanoan
  18. Wintun
  19. Yokuts
  20. Chinook
  21. Mexican Penutian (=Macro-Mayan)
  22. Huave
  23. Mayan
  24. Mixe–Zoque
  25. Totonac
  26. Oregon Penutian
  27. Plateau Penutian
  28. Tsimshian
  29. Yukian
  30. Gulf
  31. Atakapa
  32. Chitimacha
  33. Muskogean
  34. Natchez
  35. Tunica
  36. Zuni
  37. Hokan
  38. Nuclear Hokan
  39. Northern
  40. Karok–Shasta
  41. Yana
  42. Pomo
  43. Washo
  44. Esselen–Yuman
  45. Salinan–Seri
  46. Waicuri
  47. Maratino
  48. Quinigua
  49. Tequistlatec
  50. Coahuiltecan
  51. Tonkawa
  52. Nuclear Coahuiltecan
  53. Karankawa
  54. Subtiaba
  55. Jicaque
  56. Yurumangui
  57. Central Amerind
  58. Kiowa–Tanoan
  59. Otomanguean
  60. Uto-Aztecan
  61. Chibchan–Paezan
  62. Chibchan
  63. Nuclear Chibchan
  64. Antioquia
  65. Aruak
  66. Chibcha
  67. Cuna
  68. Guaymi
  69. Malibu
  70. Misumalpan
  71. Motilon
  72. Rama
  73. Talamanca
  74. Paya
  75. Purépecha
  76. Xinca
  77. Yanomam
  78. Yunca–Puruhan
  79. Paezan
  80. Allentiac
  81. Atacama
  82. Betoi
  83. Chimu
  84. Itonama
  85. Jirajara
  86. Mura
  87. Nuclear Paezan
  88. Andaqui
  89. Barbacoa
  90. Choco
  91. Paez
  92. Timucua
  93. Warrao
  94. Andean (Greenberg (1960) joined Andean and Equatorial, but Greenberg (1987) did not)
  95. Aymara
  96. Itucale–Sabela
  97. Itucale
  98. Mayna
  99. Sabela
  100. Cahuapana–Zaparo
  101. Cahuapano
  102. Zaparo
  103. Northern
  104. Catacao
  105. Cholona
  106. Culli
  107. Leco
  108. Sechura
  109. Quechua
  110. Southern
  111. Qawesqar
  112. Mapundungu
  113. Gennaken
  114. Patagon
  115. Yamana
  116. Equatorial–Tucanoan
  117. Equatorial
  118. Macro-Arawakan
  119. Arawakan
  120. Guahibo
  121. Katembri
  122. Otomaco
  123. Tinigua
  124. Cayuvava
  125. Coche
  126. Jivaro–Kandoshi
  127. Cofan
  128. Esmeralda
  129. Jivaro
  130. Kandoshi
  131. Yaruro
  132. Kariri–Tupi
  133. Kariri
  134. Tupian
  135. Piaroa
  136. Taruma
  137. Timote
  138. Trumai
  139. Tusha
  140. Yuracare
  141. Zamucoan
  142. Tucanoan
  143. Auixiri
  144. Canichana
  145. Capixana
  146. Catuquina
  147. Gamella
  148. Huari
  149. Iranshe
  150. Kaliana–Maku
  151. Auake
  152. Kaliana
  153. Maku
  154. Koaia
  155. Movima
  156. Muniche
  157. Nambikwara
  158. Natu
  159. Pankaruru
  160. Puinave
  161. Shukura
  162. Ticuna–Yuri
  163. Ticuna
  164. Yuri
  165. Tucanoan
  166. Uman
  167. Jê–Pano–Carib
  168. Macro-Jê
  169. Bororo
  170. Botocudo
  171. Caraja
  172. Chiquito
  173. Erikbatsa
  174. Fulnio
  175. Jê–Kaingang
  176. Jê
  177. Kaingang
  178. Guato
  179. Kamakan
  180. Mashakali
  181. Opaie
  182. Oti
  183. Puri
  184. Yabuti
  185. Macro-Panoan
  186. Charruan
  187. Lengua
  188. Lule–Vilela
  189. Lule
  190. Vilela
  191. Mataco–Guaicuru
  192. Guaicuru
  193. Mataco
  194. Moseten
  195. Pano–Tacanan
  196. Panoan
  197. Tacanan
  198. Macro-Carib
  199. Andoke
  200. Bora–Uitoto
  201. Boro
  202. Uitoto
  203. Carib
  204. Kukura
  205. Yagua

Mixed languages

In American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America, Lyle Campbell describes various pidgins and trade languages spoken by the indigenous peoples of the Americas. Some of these mixed languages have not been documented and are known only by name.

Lingua francas

Linguistic areas

See also

Notes and references

Bibliography

  • See:

External links