The Mahayana sutras are Buddhist texts that are accepted as and authentic buddhavacana in Mahayana Buddhist sanghas. These include three types of sutras: Those spoken by the Buddha; those spoken through the Buddha's blessings; and those spoken through mandate. They are largely preserved in Sanskrit manuscripts, and in translations such as the Tibetan Buddhist canon, and Chinese Buddhist canon. Several hundred MahÃÂyÃÂna sutras survive in Sanskrit, Tibetan and Chinese translations. The Buddhist scholar Asanga classified the MahÃÂyÃÂna sà «tras as part of the Bodhisattva Tripiá¹Âaka, a collection of texts meant for bodhisattvas.
Buddhists consider the most important Mahayana sutras to be the spoken teachings of Shakyamuni Buddha. These were quickly recorded one year following his Mahaparinirvana, when the Buddha's main attendant Ananda recited these Sutras in their entirety at the First Buddhist Council, where they were recorded. At that Council, two other attendants recited two other classifications of the Buddha's teachings. Other MahÃÂyÃÂna sà «tras are presented as being taught by masters such as bodhisattvas like Mañjuà Ârë and Avalokiteà Âvara. There are various reasons that Indian MahÃÂyÃÂna Buddhists give to explain why some Sutras appeared at later times. One such reason is that they had been hidden away in the land of the NÃÂgas (snake deities, dragons) until the proper time for their dissemination arrived. They are also sometimes called Vaipulya ("extensive") sà «tras by earlier sources.
Modern scholars of Buddhist studies generally agree these sà «tras began to be more widely disseminated between the 1st century BCE and the 1st century CE. They continued being composed, compiled, and edited until the decline of Buddhism in ancient India. Some of them may have also been composed outside of India, such as in Central Asia and in East Asia. Some of the most influential MahÃÂyÃÂna sà «tras include the Lotus Sutra, the Perfection of Wisdom Sutras, the Avatamsaka Sutra, the Lankavatara Sutra, the Pure Land Sutras, and the Nirvana Sutra.
The MahÃÂyÃÂna sà «tras were not accepted by all Buddhists in ancient India, and the various Indian Buddhist schools disagreed on their status as "word of the Buddha". They are generally not accepted as the Buddha's word by the school of TheravÃÂda Buddhism.
The origins of the MahÃÂyÃÂna and their sà «tras are not completely understood. Modern scholars have proposed numerous theories about the origins of MahÃÂyÃÂna and the MahÃÂyÃÂna texts.
Some of the main theories are the following:
According to David Drewes, none of these theories have been satisfactorily proven and they lack sufficient evidence. Drewes writes that the most likely origin of MahÃÂyÃÂna is that it was "primarily a textual movement, focused on the revelation, preaching, and dissemination of MahÃÂyÃÂna sà «tras, that developed within, and never really departed from, traditional Buddhist social and institutional structures." The figures of this movement probably saw themselves as bodhisattvas entrusted with teaching and preserving the MahÃÂyÃÂna sà «tras.
Scholars like Joseph Walser have also noted how MahÃÂyÃÂna sà «tras are heterogeneous and seem to have been composed in different communities with varying ideas. Walser writes that "MahÃÂyÃÂna was probably never unitary, but differed from region to region.". Likewise, Hajime Nakamura states:<blockquote>Unlike the various recensions of the HënayÃÂna canon, which were virtually closed by the early centuries of the common era and which shared, at least ideally, a common structure . . . the MahÃÂyÃÂna scriptures were composed in a variety of disparate social and religious environments over the course of several centuries, diverge widely from each other in content and outlook, and were in many cases meant to stand as individual works representing (it has been conjectured) rivals to the entire HënayÃÂna corpus.</blockquote>There is also no evidence that MahÃÂyÃÂna ever referred to a separate formal school or sect of Buddhism, but rather that it existed within the early Buddhist schools as a certain set of ideals, texts and later doctrines, for bodhisattvas. MahÃÂyÃÂnists also never had a separate Vinaya (monastic rule) from the early Buddhist schools. The Chinese monk Yijing who visited India in the seventh century, writes about how MahÃÂyÃÂna monastics and non-MahÃÂyÃÂna monastics lived together under the same Vinaya. The only difference among them was that MahÃÂyÃÂna monks venerated the bodhisattvas and read the MahÃÂyÃÂna sà «tras.
Some scholars like Richard Gombrich think that MahÃÂyÃÂna Sà «tras only arose after the practice of writing down religious texts became widespread in India and thus that they were always written documents. However, James Apple and David Drewes have drawn attention to these oral features of the early MahÃÂyÃÂna texts, which were not written documents but orally preserved teachings. Drewes writes, that MahÃÂyÃÂna sà «tras <blockquote>advocate mnemic/oral/aural practices more frequently than they do written ones, make reference to people who have memorized or are in the process of memorizing them, and consistently attach higher prestige to mnemic/oral practices than to ones involving written texts. Study of differences in various versions of sutras translated into Chinese has directly shown that these texts were often transmitted orally. </blockquote>MahÃÂyÃÂna sà «tras were committed to memory and recited by important learned monks called "Dharma reciters" (dharmabhÃÂá¹Âaka), who were viewed as the substitute for the actual speaking presence of the Buddha.
Much of the early extant evidence for the origins of MahÃÂyÃÂna comes from early Chinese translations of MahÃÂyÃÂna texts. These MahÃÂyÃÂna teachings were first propagated into China by Lokaká¹£ema, the first translator of MahÃÂyÃÂna Sà «tras into Chinese during the second century.
The MahÃÂyÃÂna movement remained quite small until the fifth century, with very few manuscripts having been found before then (the exceptions are from Bamiyan). According to Joseph Walser, the fifth and sixth centuries saw a great increase in their production. By this time, Chinese pilgrims, such as Faxian, Yijing, and Xuanzang were traveling to India, and their writings describe monasteries which they label 'MahÃÂyÃÂna' as well as monasteries where both MahÃÂyÃÂna monks and non-MahÃÂyÃÂna monks lived together.
Dating the MahÃÂyÃÂna sà «tras is quite difficult; and many can only be dated firmly to when they were translated into another language.
Andrew Skilton summarizes a common prevailing view of the MahÃÂyÃÂna sà «tras among modern Buddhist studies scholars as follows:
A. K. Warder notes that the MahÃÂyÃÂna Sà «tras are highly unlikely to have come from the teachings of the historical Buddha, since the language and style of every extant MahÃÂyÃÂna Sà «tra is comparable more to later Indian texts than to texts that could have circulated in the Buddha's putative lifetime. Warder also notes that the Tibetan historian TÃÂranÃÂtha (1575âÂÂ1634) proclaimed that after the Buddha taught the sutras, they disappeared from the human world and circulated only in the world of the nagas. In Warder's view, "this is as good as an admission that no such texts existed until the 2nd century A.D."
Paul Williams writes that while MahÃÂyÃÂna tradition believes that the MahÃÂyÃÂna sà «tras were taught by the Buddha, "source-critical and historical awareness has made it impossible for the modern scholar to accept this traditional account." However, Williams further writes that<blockquote>Nevertheless, it is not always absurd to suggest that a MahÃÂyÃÂna sà «tra or teaching may contain elements of a tradition which goes back to the Buddha himself, which was played down or just possibly excluded from the canonical formulations of the early schools. We have seen that even at the First Council there is evidence of disagreement as regards the details of the Buddha's teaching.</blockquote>John W. Pettit writes that "MahÃÂyÃÂna has not got a strong historical claim for representing the explicit teachings of the historical Buddha". However, he also argues that basic MahÃÂyÃÂna concepts such as "the bodhisattva ethic, emptiness (sunyata), and the recognition of a distinction between buddhahood and arhatship as spiritual ideals," can be seen in the PÃÂli Canon. According to Pettit, this suggests that MahÃÂyÃÂna is "not simply an accretion of fabricated doctrines" but "has a strong connection with the teachings of Buddha himself".
MahÃÂyÃÂna sà «tras are generally regarded by MahÃÂyÃÂnists as being more profound than the à ÂrÃÂvaka texts as well as generating more spiritual merit and benefit. Thus, they are seen as superior and more virtuous to non-MahÃÂyÃÂna sà «tras.
The MahÃÂyÃÂna sà «tras were not recognized as being Buddha word (buddhavacana) by various groups of Indian Buddhists and there was lively debate over their authenticity throughout the Buddhist world. Buddhist communities such as the MahÃÂsÃÂá¹Âghika school and the Theravada tradition of Sri Lanka became divided into groups which accepted or did not accept these texts. TheravÃÂda commentaries of the Mahavihara sub-school mention these texts (which they call Vedalla/Vetulla) as not being the Buddha word and being counterfeit scriptures. The Saá¹Âmitëya school was also known as being strongly opposed to the Mahayana sutras as noted by the Tibetan historian TÃÂranÃÂtha. Xuanzang reports that a Saá¹Âmitëya known as PrajñÃÂgupta composed a treatise which argued against the MahÃÂyÃÂna.
Various MahÃÂyÃÂna sà «tras warn against the charge that they are not word of the Buddha and defend their authenticity in different ways. Some MahÃÂyÃÂna sà «tras such as the Gaá¹Âá¸Âavyà «ha often criticize early Buddhist figures, such as Sariputra for lacking knowledge and goodness, and thus, these elders or à ÂrÃÂvaka are seen as not intelligent enough to receive the MahÃÂyÃÂna teachings.
The reason these accounts give for the historically late disclosure of the MahÃÂyÃÂna teachings is that most people were initially unable to understand the MahÃÂyÃÂna sà «tras at the time of the Buddha (500 BCE) and suitable recipients for these teachings had not yet arisen. Some traditional accounts of the transmission of the PrajñÃÂpÃÂramitàsà «tras claim that they were originally stored or hidden in the realm of the nÃÂgas (serpent-like supernatural beings). Later, these sà «tras were retrieved by NÃÂgÃÂrjuna. Other MahÃÂyÃÂna sources state that they were preached or preserved by bodhisattvas like Mañjuà Ârë or Buddhas like VajradhÃÂra.
Another MahÃÂyÃÂna explanation for the later appearance of the MahÃÂyÃÂna sà «tras in the historical record is the idea that they are the revelations of certain Buddhas and bodhisattvas, transmitted through visions and meditative experiences to a select few individuals. The practice of visualization of Buddhas (in texts like the SukhÃÂvatëvyà «ha) has been seen by some scholars as a possible explanation for the source of certain MahÃÂyÃÂna sà «tras which were seen as revelations from Buddha in other heavenly worlds. Williams also notes that there are other MahÃÂyÃÂna texts which speak of sà «tras being revealed or entrusted to forest dwelling monks by devas (deities). Paul Harrison notes that the idea that devas may preach the Buddha word is also present in non-MahÃÂyÃÂna texts. Paul Harrison has also noted the importance of dream revelations in certain texts such as the Arya-svapna-nirdesa which lists and interprets 108 dream signs.
A different MahÃÂyÃÂna justification for the authenticity of the MahÃÂyÃÂna sà «tras is that they are in accord with the truth, with the Buddha's Dharma and therefore they lead to awakening. This is based on the idea that "Whatever is well spoken [subhasita], all that is the word of the Buddha [buddhabhasita]." As such, this idea holds that MahÃÂyÃÂna is the "word of the Buddha" because it leads to awakening (bodhi), not because it was spoken by a specific individual with the title "Buddha". According to Venerable Hsuan Hua, there are five types of beings who may speak "Buddha word": a Buddha, a disciple of a Buddha, a deva (heavenly being), a á¹Âá¹£i (a sage), or an emanation of one of these beings; however, they must first receive certification from a Buddha that its contents are true Dharma.
The Indian MahÃÂyÃÂna scholar Shantideva (8th century) states:<blockquote>Through four factors is an inspired utterance [pratibhana] the word of the Buddhas. What four? (i)...the inspired utterance is connected with truth, not untruth; (ii) it is connected with the Dharma, not that which is not the Dharma; (iii) it brings about the renunciation of moral taints [klesa] not their increase; and (iv) it shows the laudable qualities of nirvana, not those of the cycle of rebirth [samsara].</blockquote>Williams writes that similar ideas can be found in the Pali Canon, though it is interpreted in a more open ended way in the MahÃÂyÃÂna in order to include a larger set of teachings that were seen as spiritually useful.
The modern Japanese Zen Buddhist scholar D. T. Suzuki similarly argued that while the MahÃÂyÃÂna sà «tras may not have been directly taught by the historical Buddha, the "spirit and central ideas" of MahÃÂyÃÂna "are those of its founder". Thus, Suzuki admits (and celebrates) how the MahÃÂyÃÂna evolved and adapted itself to suit the times by developing new teachings and texts, while at the same time maintaining the core "spirit" of the Buddha.
The teachings as contained in the MahÃÂyÃÂna sà «tras as a whole have been described as a loosely bound bundle of many teachings, which was able to contain the various contradictions. Because of these contradictory elements, there are "very few things that can be said with certainty about MahÃÂyÃÂna Buddhism".
Central to the MahÃÂyÃÂna sà «tras is the ideal of the Bodhisattva path, something which is not unique to them, however, as such a path is also taught in non-Mahayana texts which also required prediction of future Buddhahood in the presence of a living Buddha. What is unique to MahÃÂyÃÂna sà «tras is the idea that the term bodhisattva is applicable to any person from the moment they intend to become a Buddha (i.e. the arising of bodhicitta) and without the requirement of a living Buddha. They also claim that any person who accepts and uses MahÃÂyÃÂna sà «tras either had already received or will soon receive such a prediction from a Buddha, establishing their position as an irreversible bodhisattva. Some MahÃÂyÃÂna sà «tras promote it as a universal path for everyone, while others like the Ugraparipá¹Âcchàsee it as something for a small elite of hardcore ascetics.
While some MahÃÂyÃÂna sà «tras like the Vimalakirti sà «tra and the White Lotus sà «tra criticize arhats and sravakas (referring to non-MahÃÂyÃÂnists) as lacking wisdom, and reject their path as a lower vehicle, i.e. 'hënayÃÂna' (the 'inferior way'), earlier MahÃÂyÃÂna sà «tras do not do this. As noted by David Drewes "early MahÃÂyÃÂna sà «tras often present their teachings as useful not only to people who wish to become Buddhas, but to those who wish to attain arhatship or pratyekabuddhahood as well. The old idea that the MahÃÂyÃÂna began with the rejection of the arhat ideal in favor of that of the bodhisattva is thus clearly incorrect." Paul Williams also writes that earlier MahÃÂyÃÂna sà «tras like the Ugraparipá¹ÂcchàSà «tra and the Ajitasena sutra do not present any antagonism towards the hearers or the ideal of arhatship like later sutras.
According to David Drewes, MahÃÂyÃÂna sà «tras contain several elements besides the promotion of the bodhisattva ideal, including "expanded cosmologies and mythical histories, ideas of purelands and great, 'celestial' Buddhas and bodhisattvas, descriptions of powerful new religious practices, new ideas on the nature of the Buddha, and a range of new philosophical perspectives."
Several MahÃÂyÃÂna sà «tras depict Buddhas or Bodhisattvas not found in earlier texts, such as the Buddhas Amitabha, Akshobhya and Vairocana, and the bodhisattvas Maitreya, Mañjusri, Ksitigarbha, and Avalokiteshvara. An important feature of MahÃÂyÃÂna is the way that it understands the nature of Buddhahood. MahÃÂyÃÂna texts see Buddhas (and to a lesser extent, certain bodhisattvas as well) as transcendental or supramundane (lokuttara) beings, who live for eons constantly helping others through their activity.
According to Paul Williams, in MahÃÂyÃÂna, a Buddha is often seen as "a spiritual king, relating to and caring for the world", rather than simply a teacher who after his death "has completely 'gone beyond' the world and its cares". Buddha Sakyamuni's life and death on earth is then usually understood docetically, as a "mere appearance", his death was an unreal show (which was done in order to teach others), while in reality he continues to live in a transcendent realm in order to help all beings.
MahÃÂyÃÂna sà «tras, especially those of the PrajñÃÂpÃÂramitàgenre, teach the importance of the practice of the six perfections (pÃÂramitÃÂ) as part of the path to Buddhahood, and special attention is given to the perfection of wisdom (prajñÃÂpÃÂramitÃÂ) which is seen as primary. The importance of developing bodhicitta, which refers to a mind that is aimed at full awakening (i.e. Buddhahood) is also stressed.
Another central practice advocated by the MahÃÂyÃÂna sà «tras is focused around "the acquisition of merit, the universal currency of the Buddhist world, a vast quantity of which was believed to be necessary for the attainment of Buddhahood".
According to David Drewes, MahÃÂyÃÂna sà «tras teach simple religious practices that are supposed to make Buddhahood easy to achieve. Some of the most widely taught practices taught in MahÃÂyÃÂna sà «tras include:
Another innovative "shortcut" to Buddhahood in MahÃÂyÃÂna sutras are what are often called Pure Land practices. These involve the invocation of Buddhas such as Amitabha and Aksobhya, who are said to have created "Buddha fields" or "pure lands" especially so that those beings who wish to be reborn there can easily and quickly become Buddhas. Reciting certain sà «tras, along with meditating on and reciting the names of these Buddhas can allow one to be reborn in these pure buddha-fields. Once there, one can hear the Dharma directly from a Buddha and train in the bodhisattva path in a pure place without disturbances.
The study of MahÃÂyÃÂna sà «tras is central to East Asian Buddhism, where they are widely read. In Tibetan Buddhism meanwhile, there is a greater emphasis on the study of MahÃÂyÃÂna à ÂÃÂstras (philosophical treatises), which are seen as more systematic ways of studying the content found in the sà «tras.
Numerous Mahayana sutras teach the veneration and recitation of the sutras themselves as a religious icon and as an embodiment of the Dharma and the Buddha. In Indian Mahayana Buddhism, the worship of sutras, like the PrajñÃÂpÃÂramitàsutra books (pustaka) and manuscripts became an important part of Mahayana practice which was considered to bring wisdom, merit and apotropaic protection from harm. This practice is promoted in some of the sutras themselves.
The PrajñÃÂpÃÂramitàsutras promote the copying, reading, recitation, contemplation, and distribution of the sutra, and they also teach its worship and veneration. The Aá¹£á¹ÂasÃÂhasrikàPrajñÃÂpÃÂramitàSà «tra states:<blockquote>Here, the sons or daughters of good family are enjoined to put up a copy of the PrajñÃÂpÃÂramitàon an altar, and to pay respect to it, to revere, worship and adore it, pay regard and reverence to it with flowers, incense, powders, umbrellas, banners, bells, and rows of burning lamps.</blockquote>
The PrajñÃÂpÃÂramitàsutras also reference themselves as the highest object of study and worship, claiming that studying, reciting, and worshiping them is superior to worshiping stupas, Buddha relics, and other objects. The Aá¹£á¹ÂasÃÂhasrikàPrajñÃÂpÃÂramitàclaims that this is because "the relics of the TathÃÂgata have come forth from this perfection of wisdom". Since the very concept of PrajñÃÂpÃÂramità(transcendent knowledge, perfection of wisdom) is linked with the texts themselves, the texts were considered to have a mystic power within, which is the source of all the merit in the other religious objects, like Buddha relics.
Furthermore, Mahayana sutras like the Aá¹£á¹ÂasÃÂhasrikàoften claim that the Buddha is present in the text. For example the Aá¹£á¹ÂasÃÂhasrikàsays that "when a pà «ja is done to the PrajñÃÂpÃÂramitÃÂ, it is a pà «ja to the venerable past, present, and future Buddhas." This sutra also states that wherever the sutra itself is placed or recited, it makes the ground a caitya (a sacred space, shrine, sanctuary). According to Jacob Kinnard, PrajñÃÂpÃÂramitàsutras even present their physical form (as books, manuscripts, etc) as being akin to the Buddha's rà «pakÃÂya (physical form to be worshiped, like his relics) as well as being his dharmakÃÂya (which contains the Dharma, the Buddha's teachings).
The Aá¹£á¹ÂasÃÂhasrikàPrajñÃÂpÃÂramitàfurther states:<blockquote>One might hear this deep perfection of wisdom being spoken, being taught, being explained, being pointed out, and having heard it here he might bring forth the designation 'Teacher' with regard to this perfection of wisdomâÂÂhe thinks, 'The Teacher is face to face with me, the Teacher is seen by me.'</blockquote>Since the sutras teach and lead one to perfect wisdom, and perfect wisdom was considered to be the mother of all Buddhas, then to honor and to know the text was to honor and to know the Buddha. As such, the Aá¹£á¹ÂasÃÂhasrikàstates:<blockquote>In the same way in which you, ÃÂnanda, honor me, who is now the TathÃÂgata...so also, ÃÂnanda, this perfection of wisdom is to be [always]àspread, praised, worshipped, venerated, respected, honored, protected,àcopied, recited, explained, taught, pointed out, advanced, studied, spoken, and elevated, with the same solicitude, affection, respect, and in the same virtuous spirit....But, in short, in the same way in which I am youràteacher, so is the perfection of wisdom.</blockquote>The worship of Mahayana sutra books and even in anthropomorphic form (through deities like PrajñÃÂpÃÂramitàDevi) remains important in many Mahayana Buddhist traditions, including Newar Buddhism, Tibetan Buddhism and East Asian Buddhism. This is often done in rituals in which the sutras (or a deity representing the sutra) are presented various types of offerings. The sutra may then be chanted (partially or completely), though sometimes, a mantra representing the sutra or just the title of the sutra is recited. For example, the practice of chanting the title of the Lotus Sutra (called the Daimoku) is the central practice in Nichiren Buddhism, a form of Mahayana which focuses on the veneration of this sutra. In the Huayan tradition meanwhile, a central practice is the recitation and copying of the Avatamsaka Sutra (which is often done in a group setting or on solitary retreat).
The Ajitasena Sà «tra has been called "Proto-MahÃÂyÃÂna" by Paul Williams. While it promotes Buddhahood for all, the text lacks the usual antagonism towards the à Âravakas and arhats, as is typical of later MahÃÂyÃÂna texts like the Vimalakërti-nirdeà Âa Sà «tra. It also lacks any self-awareness of itself as being part of "MahÃÂyÃÂna." It promotes giving to monks like any non-MahÃÂyÃÂna text, but also includes the depiction of a prince who has visions of many Buddhafields (including Sukhavati and Abhirati) on becoming an arhat.
The Salistamba Sà «tra (rice stalk or rice sapling sà «tra) has been considered one of the first Mahayana sutras. According to N. Ross Reat, this sutra has many parallels with the material in the Pali suttas (especially the Mahatanha-sahkhaya sutta, M1:256-71), and could date as far back as 200 BCE. It is possible that this sutra represents a period of Buddhist literature before MahÃÂyÃÂna doctrine had diverged significantly from the doctrines of the early Buddhist texts.
Some of the PrajñÃÂpÃÂramitàSà «tras are considered to be some of the earliest MahÃÂyÃÂna Sà «tras. Various Western scholars generally hold that the Aá¹£á¹ÂasÃÂhasrikàPrajñÃÂpÃÂramitàSà «tra is one of the earliest of these texts (c. 1st century BCE). The VajracchedikàPrajñÃÂpÃÂramitàSà «tra is also seen by scholars like Schopen and numerous Japanese scholars as being very early.
Paul Williams also notes that in Lewis Lancaster's analysis of the earliest Chinese versions of the Aá¹£á¹ÂasÃÂhasrikàPrajñÃÂpÃÂramitàSà «tra "a number of key Mahayana concepts are missing from the earliest versions although present in later versions. The world of the earliest Aá¹£á¹ÂasÃÂhasrika is reasonably close to that of the pre-Mahayana traditions."
The main topics of these Sà «tras are the path of the bodhisattva, the six transcendent virtues and, in particular, transcendent wisdom (prajñÃÂpÃÂramitÃÂ) the most important of these. The bodhisattva "mahasattva" (great being) is a being who is training towards full Buddhahood for the benefit of all. "Transcendent Wisdom" (also: the "Perfection of Wisdom") meanwhile, means the ability to see reality as it truly is, a deep and liberating spiritual knowledge that is the source of all virtues. PrajñÃÂpÃÂramitàis thus "a state of consciousness which understands emptiness (shunyata), the absence of 'self' or intrinsic nature even in dharmas." Since all phenomena (even Nirvana) lack any essence, unchanging core or independence, they are merely conceptual constructs and as such, they are like magical illusions (maya).
Many of these sutras are known by the number of lines, or à Âlokas, that they contain, such as the Pañcaviá¹Âà ÂatisÃÂhasrikà(25,000 line) PP Sà «tra, the Aá¹£á¹Âadaà ÂasÃÂhasrikà(18,000 lines), and the à ÂatasÃÂhasrikà(100,000 lines) etc.
The Saddharma-pundarëka-sà «tra (True Dharma White Lotus Sà «tra) is a very influential Sà «tra, especially in East Asian Buddhism, where it is considered the supreme Sà «tra by many East Asian Buddhists (especially in the Tiantai and Nichiren schools).
Probably written down between 100 BCE –150 CE, the Lotus Sà «tra states that the three yÃÂnas (à ÂrÃÂvakayÃÂna, pratyekabuddhayÃÂna and bodhisattvayÃÂna) are not real paths leading to different goals, there is in fact only one path (ekayÃÂna), with one goal - Buddhahood. The sutra predicts that all those who hear the Dharma will eventually achieve this goal. The earlier teachings are said to be skilful means to teach beings according to their capacities.
The sutra is notable for the idea that a Buddha is not inaccessible after his parinirvÃÂá¹Âa since a Buddha's life-span is incalculably long. Instead of passing into a totally transcendent state, a Buddha remains to help all sentient beings in countless ways, like a great spiritual father that has been around for eons and will continue to teach for many more eons to come.
In some East Asian traditions, the Lotus Sà «tra has been compiled together with two other sutras which serve as a prologue and epilogue, respectively the Innumerable Meanings Sutra and the Samantabhadra Meditation Sutra. This composite sutra is often called the Threefold Lotus Sà «tra or Three-Part Dharma Flower Sutra.
Several sutras focus on the pure buddhafields (vià Âuddhabuddhaká¹£etra) or a Buddha's "pure lands" (as they are known in Chinese translation). The most popular of these are three sutras that deal with the pure land of AmitÃÂbha Buddha, called SukhÃÂvatë (the Blissful). These texts are very influential in East Asia, particularly in Pure Land Buddhism, which focuses on the salvific power of faith in AmitÃÂbha's salvific vow-power (pà «rva-praá¹ÂidhÃÂna-vaà Âa, the power of his past vows) to effortlessly transport all beings who think of him to his pure land.
The three main "Pure land sutras" in East Asian Pure Land Buddhism are:
Furthermore, there are also other sutras which teach about other Buddhas and their pure lands, though they are not as influential as the Amitabha sutras. They include the Bhaiá¹£ajyaguru-vaiá¸Âà «ryaprabhÃÂrÃÂja Sà «tra, which focuses on Bhaiá¹£ajyaguru, a healing Buddha also known as the "Medicine Buddha"; as well as the Aká¹£obhyatathÃÂgata-syavyà «ha Sà «tra, which focuses on the Buddha Aká¹£obhya and his pure land of Abhirati (which is one of the oldest "Pure land" texts).
Amongst the earliest MahÃÂyÃÂna texts, the "SamÃÂdhi Sà «tras" are a group of sutras that focus on the attainment of profound states of consciousness reached in meditation (samÃÂdhi, "meditative absorption, concentration"), perhaps suggesting that meditation played an important role in the development of early MahÃÂyÃÂna. However, in these texts, the term "samÃÂdhi" general signifies a more complex and diverse idea which includes numerous practices that are not purely contemplative.
"SamÃÂdhi Sà «tras" include:'
There is also another genre of MahÃÂyÃÂna meditation texts called Visualization Sutras (Chinese: è§Âç¶Â, guan jing). A key feature of these sutras is their promotion of meditation practices which focus on mentally visualizing or maintaining a mental image. Perhaps the most popular of these is the Sutra on the Contemplation of the Buddha of Immeasurable Life. Others include the Sutra on the Sea of SamÃÂdhi Attained through Contemplation of the Buddha (Guan Fo Sanmei Hai Jing), and the Sutra on the Contemplation of the Cultivation Methods of the Bodhisattva Samantabhadra (Guan Puxian Pusa Xingfa Jing), commonly known as Samantabhadra Contemplation Sutra.
There are also some meditation focused texts called DhyÃÂna Sà «tras (禪çµÂ) translated into Chinese by figures like Kumarajiva. Some of these Sà «tras contain MahÃÂyÃÂna meditation teachings.
There are also various composite "sà «tras," which are actually large collections of other sà «tras. One quite influential composite sà «tra is the BuddhÃÂvataá¹Âsaka Sà «tra (The Buddha Wreath Sà «tra), a large text contraining numerous chapters on varying topics, some of which circulated separately as independent sà «tras before being joined into the mature BuddhÃÂvataá¹Âsaka. The largest and most influential of these include the Daà Âabhà «mika Sà «tra and the Gaá¹Âá¸Âavyà «ha Sà «tra. The BuddhÃÂvataá¹Âsaka probably reached its current form by about the 4th century CE, and this compilation may have happened in Central Asia.
Williams notes that the BuddhÃÂvataá¹Âsaka sutra includes both the Yogacara mind-only teaching and the emptiness doctrine, but does so mainly from the perspective of highly advanced beings who have spiritually realized these teachings through deep meditative absorption, and thus have all sorts of magical powers which they use to help others. The BuddhÃÂvataá¹Âsaka is therefore a text that depicts various mystical visionary scenes, with countless world systems and countless Buddhas and bodhisattvas who travel freely throughout this multiverse helping all beings out of compassion. One of the most important Buddhas in this text is MahÃÂvairocana ("Great Illuminator"), who fills the entire cosmos with his light, his omniscient awareness and his magical emanations (one of which was Shakyamuni Buddha). In China, the BuddhÃÂvataá¹Âsaka became the central text for the Huayen (Jp. Kegon) school of Buddhism, which later went on to influence Chinese Chan Buddhism and Pure Land Buddhism.
Two other important MahÃÂyÃÂna "sà «tras" which are also collections of smaller independent sà «tras are the MahÃÂratnakà «á¹Âa Sà «tra (The Heap of Jewels Sà «tra) which contains 49 individual sà «tras, and the MahÃÂsamnipÃÂta Sà «tra (Sà «tra of the Great Assembly) which is a collection of 17 sà «tras.
Important sutras in the MahÃÂratnakà «á¹Âa include the Bodhisattvapiá¹Âaka, the à ÂrëmÃÂlÃÂdevë Siá¹ÂhanÃÂda Sà «tra, the Longer SukhÃÂvatë-vyà «ha Sutra, the Aká¹£obhya-vyà «ha, Ugraparipá¹ÂcchàSà «tra (The inquiry of Ugra), the Saptaà Âatikà(700 Line) PrajñÃÂpÃÂramitàSà «tra, and the TathÃÂgataguhya Sà «tra (The Secrets of the TathÃÂgata).' Important sutras in the MahÃÂsamnipÃÂta include larger works like the Aká¹£ayamati-nirdeà Âa, and the Gaganagañja-paripá¹ÂcchÃÂ, which themselves also circulated as independent sutras.'
Some Mahayana sutras focus on the hagiography of the Buddha, other Buddhas, or even tell stories of numerous Buddhas. The Lalitavistara Sà «tra is one of the most important of the hagiographical sutras. It focuses on the story of Shakyamuni Buddha's final birth.
The Karuá¹ÂÃÂÃÂpuá¹Âá¸Âarëka Sà «tra (White Lotus of Compassion Sutra) is another hagiographical sutra which tells a story about a key event in the past life of Shakyamuni Buddha.
The Bhadrakalpika Sà «tra give a list of over one thousand Buddhas which will arise in this "fortunate aeon".
A large number of Sà «tras focus on the nature, teachings and virtues of a particular bodhisattva. They include:
These sutras primarily teach doctrines associated with the YogÃÂcÃÂra school, such as the doctrine of vijñapti-mÃÂtra (ideas-only, impressions-only etc.), which states that there can only ever be awareness of mental images or impressions which manifest themselves as external objects, but are not actually external to the mind.
The ÃÂrya-saá¹Âdhi-nirmocana-Sà «tra (Noble sà «tra of the Explanation of the Profound Secrets, c. 2nd century CE) is the earliest surviving sutra in this class, and its the main text. It divides the teachings of the Buddha into three types, which it calls the "three turnings of the wheel of Dharma." To the first turning, it ascribes the ÃÂgamas of the à Âravakas, to the second turning the lower MahÃÂyÃÂna sutras including the PrajñÃÂpÃÂramitàsutras, and finally sutras like itself are deemed to comprise the third turning. Moreover, the first two turnings are considered to be provisional (neyÃÂrtha) in this system of classification, while the third group is said to present the final truth without a need for further explication (nëtÃÂrtha).
Another Indian YogÃÂcÃÂra sutra is the Buddhabhà «mi Sà «tra (Sutra on the Buddha Land). This sutra was important enough in India to have at least two Indian YogÃÂcÃÂra commentaries written on it, à Âëlabhadra's Buddhabhà «mi-vyÃÂkhyÃÂna and Bandhuprabha's Buddhabhà «myupadeà Âa. This text is also an important source of Indian Pure Land Buddhist ideas.
The Laá¹ kÃÂvatÃÂra Sà «tra (c. 4th century CE) and the Ghanavyà «ha Sà «tra, are also seen as sà «tras associated with the YogÃÂcÃÂra tradition. However both are somewhat syncretic in nature, combining YogÃÂcÃÂra doctrines with those of the buddha-nature texts. In particular, both sutras associate the tathÃÂgatagarbha (i.e. buddha-nature) with the YogÃÂcÃÂra doctrine of the storehouse consciousness (alayavijñÃÂna). The Laá¹ kÃÂvatÃÂra Sà «tra was particularly influential for Chan Buddhism.
In the Vimalakirtinirdeà Âa, composed some time between the first and second century CE, the bodhisattva Vimalakërti appears as a layman to teach the Dharma. This is seen by some as a strong assertion of the value of lay practice. The sutra teaches, among other subjects, the meaning of non-dualism, the doctrine of the true body of the Buddha, the characteristically MahÃÂyÃÂna claim that the appearances of the world are mere illusions, and the superiority of the MahÃÂyÃÂna over other paths. It places in the mouth of the lay practitioner Vimalakërti a teaching addressed to both arhats and bodhisattvas, regarding the doctrine of à Âà «nyatÃÂ. In most versions, the discourse of the text culminates with a wordless teaching of silence. This sutra has been very popular in China and Japan.
The class of texts called "TathÃÂgatagarbha sà «tras" teach the important MahÃÂyÃÂna doctrine of TathÃÂgatagarbha, (TathÃÂgata-embryo, TathÃÂgata-womb, Inner TathÃÂgata, also known as Sugatagarbha) and Buddha-dhatu (Buddha nature, Buddha source, Buddha element). According to Williams, this doctrine states that all beings "have a TathÃÂgata [i.e. a Buddha] within them, in seed or embryo, that sentient beings are the wombs or matrices of the TathÃÂgata, or that they have a TathÃÂgata as their essence, core, or essential inner nature."
The earliest of these texts have been seen by modern scholars as including the MahÃÂyÃÂna MahÃÂparinirvÃÂá¹Âa Sà «tra (not to be confused with the PÃÂli Mahaparinibbana Sutta and its parallels) and the TathÃÂgatagarbha Sà «tra (however, the dating of these texts is far from settled).
Other important sutras in this genre include the à ÂrëmÃÂlàSà «tra, the Aá¹ gulimÃÂlëya Sà «tra, the Anà «natvÃÂpurnatvanirdeà Âa (The Teaching on the Absence of Increase and Decrease), the MahÃÂbherë Sà «tra (Great Drum), and the MahÃÂmegha Sà «tra (Great Cloud Sutra) .
These focus on principles that guide the ethical behaviour (à Âëla) of bodhisattvas and the bodhisattva precepts, and include the KÃÂshyapa-parivarta, the Bodhisattva-prÃÂtimoká¹£a Sutra, the UpÃÂliparipá¹Âcchà(also known in Chinese as The Buddha Speaks of Decisive Vinaya Sutra) and the BrahmajÃÂla Sutra (or BrahmajÃÂla Bodhisattva à Âëla Sà «tra). For East Asian Zen monastics, the Bequeathed Teachings Sutra is a widely chanted and studied text on ethical discipline. Yet there is also the Noble MahÃÂyÃÂna Sà «tra, Purification of Karmic Obscurations (KarmÃÂvaraá¹Âavià Âuddhi) describing âÂÂthe monk Stainless Light, who had been seduced by a prostitute and feels strong remorse for having violated his vowsâ after which âÂÂthe Buddha explains the lack of inherent nature of all phenomena and the luminous nature of mind.âÂÂ
The Sutra of the Three Heaps (Sanskrit: Triskandhadharmasutra) and the Golden Light Sutra (Suvará¹ÂaprabhÃÂsa-sà «tra) focus on the practice of confession of faults. The Golden Light Sutra became especially influential in East Asian Buddhism, particularly because of its teaching on how the Four Heavenly Kings protect the ruler who governs his country in the proper manner and upholds the sutra.
The Sutra of the Three Heaps meanwhile remains an important confession focused sutra in Tibetan Buddhism.
DhÃÂraá¹Âë sutras are Mahayana sutras that focus on specific dhÃÂraá¹Âës (recitations, chants, incantations, spells), which are mostly in some form of Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit. DhÃÂraá¹Âës are understood as having various magical powers, including protection against evil, purification, promotion of good rebirth, generation of merit, and even enlightenment. The word dhÃÂraá¹Âë derives from a Sanskrit root âÂÂdhá¹ meaning "to hold or maintain".
The DhÃÂraá¹Âë sutra genre is ancient, and similar works can be found in even non-Mahayana Buddhist canons, one example being the Atanatiya Sutra. Several early Buddhist schools had also maintained a collection of scriptures focused on dhÃÂraá¹Âë and magical practices, sometimes called DhÃÂraá¹Âë Piá¹Âaka or called the VidyÃÂdhara Piá¹Âaka (Wizardry Collection) which included various types of rituals and spells (vidyÃÂ). For example, the Dharmaguptaka school's Tripiá¹Âaka is said to have contained a DhÃÂraá¹Âë Piá¹Âaka. The Mahayana DhÃÂraá¹Âë sutras developed out of this ancient Buddhist magical tradition. While many classic Mahayana sutras (like the Lotus and Golden Light) contain dhÃÂraá¹Âë, DhÃÂraá¹Âë sutras are focused specifically on dhÃÂraá¹Âë practice and associated rites.
Mahayana dhÃÂraá¹Âë literature became popular in East Asia in the first millennium CE, with Chinese records suggesting their profusion by the early centuries of the common era. These migrated from China to Korea and Japan. The demand for printed dhÃÂraá¹Âë led to innovations in block printing. Today, the recitation of dhÃÂraá¹Âë remains a major part of Mahayana Buddhist practice, and they are also used as amulets and protective charms.Some important dhÃÂraá¹Âë texts include:
DhÃÂraá¹Âë texts were often collected together into DhÃÂraá¹Âë collections, such as the DhÃÂraá¹Âë Saá¹Âgraha and the Collected DhÃÂraá¹Âë Sà «tras (Tuoluoni jijing éÂÂç¾ å°¼éÂÂ), Taisho Tripitaka no. 901, translated by Atikà «á¹Âa in 654.
Esoteric Sà «tras (Guhyamantra, i.e. "Secret mantra" sutras, known as å¯Âæ Mìjiao in Chinese and Mikkyà  in Japanese) comprise an important category of works that are related to mantric and esoteric Buddhist practices. Most of these differ from simpler DhÃÂraá¹Âë sutras in that they contain much more elaborate ritual technology and schemas (such as the use of images, altars, fire offerings, abhiá¹£eka, mandalas or visualization meditations). While earlier DhÃÂraá¹Âë sutras focus on the simple recitation mantric formulas, later esoteric sà «tras contain descriptions of mandalas, mudras, complex rituals involving elements like bathing, setting up a ritual perimeter, and so forth. These more complex esoteric sutras developed gradually out of simpler DhÃÂraá¹Âë recitation sutras.
According to Koichi Shinohara, the early "esoteric" sutras were not initially considered a separate category of "tantric" or "esoteric" sutras, and they were not seen as separate from mainstream Mahayana. By the 7th century, the complexity of the rituals had reached a new stage of mature Indian Mantric Buddhism, as seen in the VairocanÃÂbhisaá¹Âbodhi Sà «tra.
Over time, these esoteric sutras became seen as part of a separate category of texts and even of a separate "vehicle" to liberation - the Mantrayana or Vajrayana. While the texts listed below call themselves sutras, later Buddhist traditions often reclassified these as "tantras" due to their Mantrayana content. Some important esoteric Mahayana texts include:
Some late Prajñaparamita texts (dated to c. 8th century up to 11th century CE) also include mantric and dhÃÂraá¹Âë elements, and are thus known as esoteric Prajñaparamita sutras. These later esoteric PrajñÃÂpÃÂramitàsutras are generally short texts which contain mantras and/or dhÃÂraá¹Âës and also reference esoteric Buddhist (Mantrayana) ideas. They often promote simple practices based on recitation which lead to the accumulation of merit and help one reach awakening.
Esoteric PrajñÃÂpÃÂramitàsutras include: Adhyardhaà ÂatikàPrajñÃÂpÃÂramitàSà «tra (150 lines), the famous Heart Sutra (PrajñÃÂpÃÂramitÃÂhá¹Âdaya), the Ekaà ÂlokikàprajñÃÂpÃÂramitÃÂ, SvalpÃÂká¹£aràPrajñÃÂpÃÂramitÃÂ, Kauà ÂikàPrajñÃÂpÃÂramitÃÂ, Saptaà ÂlokikàPrajñÃÂpÃÂramitÃÂ, the *PrajñÃÂpÃÂramitÃÂnÃÂmÃÂá¹£á¹Âaà Âataka and the Candragarbha PrajñÃÂpÃÂramitÃÂ.
There are various sà «tras that were traditionally considered to be translations from Indian sources (and which are written to mimic Indic works) but that modern scholars have now shown were most likely composed in East Asia or Central Asia. These texts may also contain colophons which claim to be translations of an Indian original. These sutras are sometimes called "apocryphal" sà «tras (a term borrowed from biblical studies) by modern scholars. In Buddhist studies, the term does not necessarily carry the pejorative connotations that it may have in other contexts (and these works are certainly not considered "heretical").
According to Charles Muller, "while certain texts are fit to be classified with the 'spurious' connotations of the term apocrypha, a significant portion of them were extremely well written works, whose contents accorded with the most profound of the Buddhist doctrines." East Asian Buddhists were aware of the phenomenon of writing original works and attributing them to Indian sources. These texts were sometimes classified either as i-ching (çÂÂ綠"scriptures of doubtful authenticity") or as wei-ching (Ã¥ÂÂæ "spurious scriptures"). Chinese Buddhists like Seng-yu (å§ç¥Â; 445âÂÂ518) noted these spurious works in their Buddhist text catalogues.
Some Mahayana sutras in the Chinese canon which have been influential in East Asian Buddhism and were likely composed outside of India (in whole or in part) include:
Since there are many apocryphal sutras in the Chinese Canon, modern scholars have developed various taxonomies of the different types of Apocryphal Sà «tras. For example, according to Mochizuki Shinkà Â's Bukkyà  kyà Âten seiritsushi ron, there are three main types of apocryphal Chinese "sutras". Makita Tairyà  outlines five types of apocryphal sutras.
There are many commentaries to the MahÃÂyÃÂna sutras. Some Indian commentaries survive, mostly in translation. Other commentaries were written in Chinese and Tibetan.
Important MahÃÂyÃÂna sutra commentaries include:
Some Buddhist Schools in India had collections of MahÃÂyÃÂna Sà «tras which were part of their scriptural canon, sometimes in their own textual collection referred to as Bodhisattva Piá¹Âaka. Jan Nattier notes that the Ugraparipá¹ÂcchàSà «tra mentions a Bodhisattva Piá¹Âaka (as part of a four part canon that also includes the Sutra Piá¹Âaka, the Vinaya Piá¹Âaka, and the Abhidharma Piá¹Âaka). According to Nattier, schools which maintained a Bodhisattva Piá¹Âaka include the Dharmaguptaka and perhaps the Bahuà Ârutëya (or whoever authored the Tattvasiddhi-à ÂÃÂstra). Some sutras translated by Lokaksema (c. 147-189 CE) also mention a "Bodhisattva Piá¹Âaka".
In the 4th century MahÃÂyÃÂna abhidharma work Abhidharmasamuccaya, Asaá¹ ga refers to the collection which contains the ÃÂgamas as the à ÂrÃÂvakapiá¹Âaka, and associates it with the à ÂrÃÂvakas and pratyekabuddhas. Asaá¹ ga classifies the MahÃÂyÃÂna Sà «tras as belonging to the Bodhisattvapiá¹Âaka, which is designated as the collection of teachings for bodhisattvas.
The MahÃÂyÃÂna Sà «tras survive predominantly in "Buddhist Chinese" (fójiào hànyàä½ÂæÂÂæ¼¢èªÂ, a variety of written ancient Chinese) and Classical Tibetan translations. The source texts were probably in Buddhist Hybrid Sanskrit or various Prakrit languages such as Gandhari. The main collections are found in the Tibetan Kangyur and the Chinese Tripiá¹Âaka. There are also numerous Sanskrit manuscripts of individual texts from various finds like Dunhuang, and Sanskrit collections from Nepal. Many parallel translations of certain Sà «tras exist. A handful of them, such as the PrajñÃÂpÃÂramitàsutras like the Heart Sutra and the Diamond Sutra, are considered fundamental by most modern MahÃÂyÃÂna traditions.
Some scholars have traditionally considered the earliest MahÃÂyÃÂna Sà «tras to include the very first versions of the PrajñÃÂpÃÂramitàseries, along with texts concerning Akshobhya, which were probably composed in the 1st century BCE in the south of India. According to A.K. Warder, some scholars think that the earliest MahÃÂyÃÂna Sà «tras were mainly composed in the south of India, and later the activity of writing additional scriptures was continued in the north.
Some of the earliest MahÃÂyÃÂna Sà «tras were translated by the Kushan monk Lokaká¹£ema, who came to China from the kingdom of GandhÃÂra. His first translations to Chinese were made in the Eastern Han capital of Luoyang between 178 and 189 CE. The editors of the Taishà  Tripiá¹Âaka attribute twelve texts to Lokaká¹£ema. These attributions have been studied in detail by Erik Zürcher, Paul Harrison and Jan Nattier, and some have been called into question. Zürcher considers it reasonably certain that Lokaká¹£ema translated the following:
Harrison is doubtful about T626, and considers that T418 is the product of revision and does not date from Lokaká¹£ema's time. Conversely, Harrison considers that T624 Druma-kinnara-rÃÂja-paripá¹ÂcchÃÂ-sà «tra (ä¼ çÂÂéÂÂç¾ æÂÂÃ¥ÂÂå¦Âä¾Âä¸Âæ§ç¶Â) ought to be considered genuine.
Another set of Mahayana sutras, which gives an indication of which Mahayana sources were widespread in Central Asia, are those translated by the Indian-Kuchan translator KumÃÂrajëva (344âÂÂ413 CE) and his team (probably from Kuchan target sources) in Chang'an. The main sutras they translated are:
The Sà «trasamuccaya is a compendium of sà «tra quotations which survives in Tibetan and Chinese translation. It is sometimes attributed to Nagarjuna, but is likely to be from a later period (possibly 4th century CE or later). This anthology gives us an idea of some of the important MahÃÂyÃÂna Sà «tras that were being studied and quoted in Indian MahÃÂyÃÂna Buddhism at this time. The Sà «trasamuccaya quotes from some early Buddhist texts, but mainly focuses on MahÃÂyÃÂna Sà «tras.
The following MahÃÂyÃÂna Sà «tras are quoted in the Sà «trasamuccaya:
According to David Seyfort Ruegg, the main sutra sources of the madhyamaka tradition are the PrajñÃÂpÃÂramitÃÂ, Ratnakà «á¹Âa and Avataá¹Âsaka sutras. Other sutras which were widely cited by Indian madhamika philosophers are: Vimalakërtinirdeá¹£a, the à Âuraá¹ÂgamasamÃÂdhi, the Saddharmapuá¹Âá¸Âarëka, the Daà Âabhà «mika, the Aká¹£ayamatinirdeà Âa, the TathÃÂgataguhyaka, and the KÃÂà Âyapaparivarta.
Ruegg also notes that the later madhyamaka Candrakërti (<abbr>c.</abbr>âÂÂ600 â c.âÂÂ650) cites the PrajñÃÂpÃÂramitàsutras as well as: <blockquote>the Aká¹£ayamatinirdeà Âa, AnavataptahradÃÂpasaá¹Âkramaá¹Âa, UpÃÂliparipá¹ÂcchÃÂ, KÃÂà Âyapaparivarta, Gaganagañja, TathÃÂgataguhya, Daà Âabhà «mika, Dá¹Âá¸ÂhÃÂdhyÃÂà Âaya, DhÃÂraá¹Âëà ÂvararÃÂja, PitÃÂputrasamÃÂgama, Mañjuà Ârëparipá¹ÂcchÃÂ, Ratnakà «á¹Âa, Ratnacà «á¸Âaparipá¹ÂcchÃÂ, Ratnamegha, RatnÃÂkara, Laá¹ kÃÂvatÃÂra, Lalitavistara, Vimalakirtinirdesa, à ÂÃÂlistamba, SatyadvayÃÂvatÃÂra, Saddharmapuá¹Âá¸Âarëka, SamÃÂdhirÃÂja (Candrapradëpa), and Hastikaká¹£ya.</blockquote> The Compendium of Training (à Âiká¹£ÃÂsamuccaya) by the eighth-century madhyamaka scholar à ÂÃÂntideva, cites a total of ninety-seven MahÃÂyÃÂna sà «tras, some of which are now lost. According to Donald Lopez:<blockquote>à ÂÃÂntideva cites three passages from the Lotus Sà «tra, compared, for example, with two from the Aá¹£á¹ÂasÃÂhasrikÃÂprajñÃÂpÃÂramitàand two from the Laá¹ kÃÂvatÃÂrasà «tra. Among the most cited sà «tras are the Aká¹£ayamatinirdeà Âa (eighteen citations), the Ugraparipá¹Âcchà(twenty citations), the Dharmasaá¹Âgëti (eighteen citations), and the Ratnamegha (twenty-four citations).</blockquote>
Though there are various editions of the Chinese Buddhist canon (大èÂÂç¶Â; pinyin: Dàzàngjëng), one of the most widespread modern editions is the Japanese Taisho Tripitaka, redacted during the 1920s. It consists of eighty-five volumes.
The MahÃÂyÃÂna Sà «tras are contained in various sections of the canon:
In the Tibetan Buddhist Canon, MahÃÂyÃÂna Sà «tra translations are found in the Kangyur (Wylie: bka'-'gyur). They are traditionally divided into four divisions:
Newar Buddhism has a group of nine Sanskrit Mahayana sutras that are considered the key texts of the tradition. They are: