The Lotus Sà «tra (, , ; japanese language: æ³Âè¯çµÂ; rà Âmaji: Hokkekyà Â; ) is one of the most influential and venerated Buddhist MahÃÂyÃÂna sà «tras. It is the main scripture on which the Chinese Tiantai and its derivative schoolsâÂÂthe Japanese Tendai and Nichiren, Korean Cheontae, and Vietnamese Thiên Thai schools of BuddhismâÂÂwere established. It has also influenced other East Asian Buddhist schools, such as Chan and Zen. According to the British Buddhologist Paul Williams, "For many Buddhists in East Asia since early times, the Lotus Sà «tra contains the final teaching of Shakyamuni BuddhaâÂÂcomplete and sufficient for salvation." The American Buddhologist Donald S. Lopez Jr. writes that the Lotus Sà «tra "is arguably the most famous of all Buddhist texts," presenting "a radical re-vision of both the Buddhist path and of the person of the Buddha."
Two central teachings of the Lotus Sà «tra have been very influential for MahÃÂyÃÂna Buddhism. The first is the doctrine of the One Vehicle, which says that all Buddhist paths and practices lead to Buddhahood and so they are all actually "skillful means" of reaching Buddhahood. The second is the idea that the lifespan of the Buddha is immeasurable, and that therefore, he did not really pass on into final Nirvana (he only appeared to do so as upÃÂya), but is still active teaching the Dharma.
The earliest known Sanskrit title for the sà «tra is the Saddharma Puá¹Âá¸Âarëka Sà «tra (à ¤¸à ¤¦à ¥Âà ¤§à ¤°à ¥Âà ¤® à ¤ªà ¥Âà ¤£à ¥Âà ¤¡à ¤°à ¥Âà ¤ à ¤¸à ¥Âà ¤¤à ¥Âà ¤°), which can be translated as "the Scripture of the Lotus Blossom of the Fine Dharma" or "The Discourse on the White Lotus of the True Doctrine." In English, the shortened form Lotus Sà «tra is more common.
Translations of this title into Asian languages include the following:
The Japanese Buddhist priest Nichiren (1222âÂÂ1282) regarded the title as the summary of the Lotus Sà «tra teachings. The chanting of the title is the basic religious practice he advocated during his lifetime.
The Lotus Sà «tra is known for its extensive instruction on skillful means (Sanskrit: upÃÂyakauà Âalya (à ¤Âà ¤ªà ¤¾à ¤¯à ¤Âà ¥Âà ¤¶à ¤²à ¥Âà ¤¯) or upÃÂya (à ¤Âà ¤ªà ¤¾à ¤¯), Ch.: fangbian, Jp.: hà Âben), which refers to how Buddhas teach in many ways adapted to the needs of their disciples. This concept of Buddhist pedagogical strategies is often explained through parables or allegories. In the Lotus Sà «tra, the many 'skillful' or 'expedient' practices and teachings taught by the Buddha (including the "three vehicles" to awakening) are revealed to all be part of the "One Vehicle" (Skt.: ekayÃÂna (à ¤Âà ¤Âà ¤¯à ¤¾à ¤¨), Ch.:ä¸Âä¹Â; yëchéng), the supreme and all encompassing path that leads to Buddhahood. Moreover, this single vehicle is none other than the myriad skillful means which are its expressions and modes. As the Buddha says in the sà «tra, "seek as you will in all ten directions, there is no other vehicle, apart from the upÃÂyas of the Buddhas."
The One Vehicle is associated with the MahÃÂyÃÂna ("Great Vehicle"), which is a path that rejects the cutting off of rebirth (the individual nirvana or "extinction" of the Buddhist saint) and seeks to heroically remain in the world of suffering to help others attain awakening, all while working towards complete Buddhahood. In the Lotus Sà «tra, the One Vehicle encompasses many different and seemingly contradictory teachings because the Buddha's great compassion and wish to save all beings (bodhicitta) led him to adapt the teaching to suit many different kinds of people and contexts. As the Buddha states in the Lotus Sà «tra: "Ever since I became a Buddha, I have used a variety of causal explanations and a variety of parables to teach and preach, and countless skillful means to lead living beings."
The Lotus Sà «tra declares also all other teachings are subservient to, propagated by and in the service of the ultimate truth of the "One BuddhaâÂÂVehicle", a goal that is available to all. This can and has been interpreted by some figures in an exclusive and hierarchical sense, as meaning that all other Buddhist teachings are to be dispensed with. However, Reeves and other interpreters understand the one vehicle in a more pluralist and inclusive sense which embraces and reconciles all Buddhist teachings and practices. Some have even applied this universalism to non-Buddhist teachings.
Reeves also notes that the theme of unity and difference also includes other ideas besides the One Vehicle. According to Reeves "on more than one occasion, for example, the many worlds of the universe are brought together into a unity." Similarly, though there are said to be many Buddhas, they are all closely connected with Shakyamuni and they all teach the same thing.
Another important teaching of the Lotus Sà «tra is that all beings can become Buddhas. The sà «tra sees the awakening of a Buddha as the only and ultimate goal, and it claims that "of any who hear the dharma, none shall fail to achieve Buddhahood." Numerous figures in the sà «tra receive predictions of future Buddhahood, including the ultimate Buddhist villain Devadatta. In chapter 10, the Buddha points out that all sorts of people will become Buddhas, including monks, nuns, laypeople, along with numerous non-human beings like nagas. Even those who practice only simple forms of devotion, such as paying respect to the Buddha, Buddhist relics and stupas, or drawing a picture of the Buddha, are assured of their future Buddhahood.
According to Gene Reeves, this teaching also encourages the potential for Buddhahood in all beings, even in enemies as well as "to realize our own capacity to be a Buddha for someone else." He also believed that the story of the little Dragon Girl promotes the idea that women can also become Buddhas just like monks. Reeves sees this as an inclusive message which "affirms the equality of everyone and seeks to provide an understanding of Buddha-dharma that excludes no one."
Although the term Buddha-nature (Buddhadhatu) is not mentioned in the Lotus Sà «tra, Japanese scholars Hajime Nakamura and Akira Hirakawa suggest that the concept is implicitly present in the text. An Indian commentary (attributed to Vasubandhu), interprets the Lotus Sà «tra as a teaching of Buddha-nature and later East Asian commentaries tended to adopt this view. Chinese commentators pointed to the story of Bodhisattva Never Disparaging in chapter 20 as evidence that the Lotus taught Buddha-nature implicitly.
Another key concept introduced by the Lotus Sà «tra is the idea that the Buddha's lifespan is immeasurable and that he is still present in the world. The text states that the Buddha actually achieved Buddhahood innumerable eons ago, but remains in the world to help teach beings the Dharma time and again. The lifespan of the Buddha is said to be incalculable, beyond imagination, "ever enduring, never perishing." The biography and apparent death (paranirvana, "final nirvana") of Sakyamuni Buddha (i.e., the Buddha Gautama) are portrayed as an illusory manifestation, a skillful means meant to teach others.
The idea that the physical death of a Buddha is the termination of their life is graphically refuted by the appearance of another Buddha, Prabhà «taratna, who has taught the Lotus countless aeons ago. The Lotus Sà «tra indicates that not only can multiple Buddhas exist in the same time and place (which contrasts with earlier Indian views), but that there are countless streams of Buddhas extending throughout all of space and through unquantifiable eons of time. The Lotus Sà «tra illustrates a sense of timelessness and the inconceivable, often using large numbers and measurements of space and time.
Jacqueline Stone writes that the Lotus Sà «tra affirms the view that the Buddha constantly abides in our present world. As the Lotus states in chapter 16, the Buddha remains "constantly dwelling in this Sahàworld sphere, preaching the dharma, teaching and converting." According to Stone, the sà «tra has also been interpreted as promoting the idea that the Buddha's realm (Buddhaká¹£etra) "is in some sense immanent in the present world, although radically different from our ordinary experience of being free from decay, danger and suffering." In this view, which is very influential in Chinese Buddhism and Japanese Buddhism, "this world and the pure land are not, ultimately, separate places but are in fact non dual."
According to Gene Reeves, the Lotus Sà «tra also teaches that the Buddha has many embodiments and these are the countless bodhisattva disciples. These bodhisattvas choose to remain in the world to save all beings and to keep the teaching alive. For Reeves "the fantastically long life of the Buddha, in other words, is at least partly a function of and dependent on his being embodied in others."
The sà «tra is presented in the form of a drama consisting of several mythological scenes. According to British writer Sangharakshita, the Lotus uses the entire cosmos for its stage, employs a multitude of mythological beings as actors and "speaks almost exclusively in the language of images."
According to Gene Reeves the first part of the sà «tra "elucidates a unifying truth of the universe (the One Vehicle of the Wonderful Dharma)", the second part "sheds light on the everlasting personal life of the Buddha (Everlasting Original Buddha); and the third part emphasizes the actual activities of human beings (the bodhisattva way)."
The following chapter by chapter overview is based on the expanded Chinese version of KumÃÂrajëva, the most widely translated version into other languages. Other versions have different chapter divisions.
During a gathering at Vulture Peak, Shakyamuni Buddha goes into a state of deep meditative absorption (samadhi), the earth shakes in six ways, and he brings forth a ray of light from the tuft of hair in between his eyebrows (à «rá¹ÂÃÂkoà Âa) which illuminates thousands of Buddha-fields in the east. Maitreya wonders what this means, and the bodhisattva Mañjuà Ârë states that he has seen this miracle long ago when he was a student of the Buddha Candrasà «ryapradëpa. He then says that the Buddha is about to expound his ultimate teaching, The White Lotus of the Good Dharma. In fact, Mañjuà Ârë says this sà «tra was taught by other Buddhas innumerable times in the past.
Modern scholars suggest that chapters 2âÂÂ9 contain the original form of the text. In Chapter 2 the Buddha declares that there ultimately exists only one path, one vehicle, the Buddha vehicle (BuddhayÃÂna). This concept is set forth in detail in chapters 3âÂÂ9, using parables, narratives of previous existences and prophecies of awakening.
Chapter 2: Skillful Means
Shakyamuni explains his use of skillful means to adapt his teachings according to the capacities of his audience. He also says that his ways are inconceivable. à ÂÃÂripà «tra asks the Buddha to explain this and five thousand monks leave because they do not want to hear this teaching. The Buddha then reveals that the three vehicles (yÃÂnas) are really just skillful means, and that they are in reality the One Vehicle (ekayÃÂna). He says that the ultimate purpose of the Buddhas is to cause sentient beings "to obtain the insight of the Buddha" and "to enter the way into the insight of the Buddha."
The Buddha also states the various benefits for those who preserve the sà «tra, and that those who perform even the simplest forms of devotion will eventually reach Buddhahood. The Buddha also states that those who reject and insult the Lotus Sà «tra (and those who teach it) will be reborn in hell.
Chapter 3: The Parable of the Burning House
The Buddha prophesies that in a future eon (kalpa) à ÂÃÂripà «tra will become a Buddha called Padmaprabha. à ÂÃÂripà «tra is happy to have heard this new teaching, but says that some in the assembly are confused. The Buddha responds with the parable of the burning house, in which a father (symbolizing the Buddha) uses the promise of various toy carts to get his children (sentient beings) out of a burning house (symbolizing samsara). Once they are outside, he gives them all one large cart to travel in instead. This symbolizes how the Buddha uses the , as skillful means to liberate all beings â even though there is only one single vehicle to Buddhahood, i.e. the MahÃÂyÃÂna. The sà «tra emphasizes that this is not a lie, but a compassionate salvific act.
Chapter 4: Belief and Understanding
Four senior disciples including MahÃÂkÃÂÃ Âyapa address the Buddha. They tell the parable of the poor son and his rich father (sometimes called the "prodigal son" parable). This man left home and became a beggar for 50 years while his father became incredibly rich. One day the son arrives at the father's estate, but the son does not recognize his father and is afraid of such a powerful man. The father therefore sends low class people to offer him a menial job cleaning trash. For over 20 years, the father gradually leads his son to more important and better jobs, such as being the accountant for all the father's wealth. Then one day he announces his identity and the son is overjoyed. The senior disciples say that they are like the son, because initially they did not have the confidence to accept full Buddhahood, but today they are happy to accept their future Buddhahood.
Chapter 5: The Parable of Medicinal Herbs
This parable says that the Dharma is like a great monsoon rain that nourishes many different kinds of plants in accordance with their needs. The plants represent à ÂrÃÂvakas, Pratyekabuddhas, and Bodhisattvas, and all beings which receive and respond to the teachings according to their respective capacities. Some versions of the sà «tra also contain other parables, such as one which compares the Dharma to the light of the Sun and moon, which shine equally on all. Just like that, the Buddha's wisdom shines on everyone equally. Another parable found in some versions says that just like a potter makes different types of pots from the same clay, the Buddha teaches the same One Vehicle in different forms.
Chapter 6: Bestowal of Prophecy
The Buddha prophesies the future Buddhahood of MahÃÂkÃÂà Âyapa, MahÃÂÃÂmaudgalyÃÂyana, Subhà «ti, and MahÃÂkÃÂtyÃÂyana.
Chapter 7: A Past Buddha and the Illusory City
The Buddha tells a story about a past Buddha called MahÃÂbhijñÃÂÃÂjñÃÂnÃÂbhibhà «, who reached awakening after aeons under the Bodhi tree and then taught the four noble truths and dependent origination. At the request of his sixteen sons, he then taught the Lotus Sà «tra for a hundred thousand eons. His sons proceeded to teach the sà «tra. The Buddha then says that these sons all became Buddhas and that he is one of these.
The Buddha also teaches a parable about a group of people seeking a great treasure who are tired of their journey and wish to quit. Their guide creates a magical illusory city for them to rest in and then makes it disappear. The Buddha explains that the magic city represents the "Hinayana Nirvana", created merely as a rest stop by the Buddha, and the real treasure and ultimate goal is Buddhahood.
Chapter 8: Prophecy for Five Hundred Disciples
Pà «rá¹Âa MaitrÃÂyaá¹ÂëÃÂpà «tra is declared by the Buddha to be the supreme teacher in his saá¹ gha and is given a prediction of future Buddhahood (his name will be DharmaprabhÃÂsa). The Buddha then gives prophecies of future Buddhahood to twelve hundred arhats. The five hundred arhats who had walked out before confess that they were ignorant in the past and attached to the inferior nirvana but now they are overjoyed since they have faith in their future Buddhahood.
The arhats tell the parable of a man who has fallen asleep after drinking and whose friend sews a jewel into his garment. When he wakes up he continues a life of poverty without realizing he is really rich, he only discovers the jewel after meeting his old friend again. The hidden jewel has been interpreted as a symbol of Buddha-nature. Zimmermann noted the similarity with the nine parables in the TathÃÂgatagarbha Sà «tra that illustrate how the indwelling Buddha in sentient beings is hidden by negative mental states.
Chapter 9: Prophecies for the Learners and Adepts
ÃÂnanda, RÃÂhula, and two thousand bhiká¹£us aspire to get a prophecy, and the Buddha predicts their future Buddhahood.
Chapters ten to twenty two expound the role of the bodhisattva and the concept of the immeasurable and inconceivable lifespan and omnipresence of the Buddha. The theme of propagating the Lotus Sà «tra which starts in chapter 10, continues in the remaining chapters.
Chapter 10: The Dharma teachers
The Buddha states that whoever hears even just one line from the sà «tra will attain Buddhahood. This chapter presents the practices of teaching the sà «tra which includes accepting, embracing, reading, reciting, copying, explaining, propagating it, and living in accordance with its teachings. The teachers of the Dharma (dharmabhÃÂá¹Âaka) are praised as the messengers of the Buddha. The Buddha states that they should be honored as if they were Buddhas and that stupas should be built wherever the sà «tra is taught, recited or written. Someone who does not know the Lotus is like digging a well and finding only dry earth, while a bodhisattva that knows the Lotus is like striking water. The Buddha also says that he will send emanations to protect the teachers of the sà «tra.
Chapter 11: The Emergence of the Jeweled Stupa
A massive jeweled stupa (a stylized Buddhist reliquary burial mound) rises from the earth and floats in the air. Then a voice is heard from within praising the Lotus Sà «tra. The Buddha states that another Buddha resides in the stupa, Prabhà «taratna, who attained awakening through the Lotus Sà «tra and made a vow to make an appearance to verify the truth of the Lotus Sà «tra whenever it is preached.
Countless manifestations of Shakyamuni Buddha in the ten directions are now summoned by the Buddha into this world, transforming it into a Pure Land. The Buddha then opens the stupa. Thereafter Prabhà «taratna invites Shakyamuni to sit beside him in the jeweled stupa. This chapter reveals the existence of multiple Buddhas at the same time as well as the idea that Buddhas can live on for countless aeons. According to Donald Lopez "among the doctrinal revelations that this scene intimates is that a Buddha does not die after he passes into nirvÃÂna."
Chapter 12: Devadatta
The Buddha tells a story about how in a previous life he was a king who became the slave of a rishi just so he could hear the Lotus Sà «tra. This rishi was none other than Devadatta, who is destined for Buddhahood in the future as the Buddha DevarÃÂja.
In another story, Mañjuà Ârë praises the nÃÂga king SÃÂgara's daughter and says she can attain Buddhahood. The bodhisattva PrajñÃÂkà «á¹Âa is skeptical of this, and then the nÃÂga princess appears. à ÂÃÂripà «tra says that women cannot attain Buddhahood. The nÃÂga princess makes an offering to the Buddha of a precious jewel and then says she can reach Buddhahood faster than she made that offering. She then turns into a male bodhisattva and becomes a Buddha. Through these stories, the Buddha teaches that everyone can become enlightened â men, women, animals, and even the most sinful murderers.
Chapter 13: Encouraging Devotion
The Buddha encourages all beings to embrace the teachings of the sà «tra in all times, even in the most difficult ages to come. The bodhisattvas Bhaiá¹£ajyarÃÂja, MahÃÂpratibhÃÂna and two hundred thousand others promise to teach the sà «tra in the future. The Buddha prophecies that the six thousand nuns who are also present, including MahÃÂprajÃÂpatë and Yaà ÂodharÃÂ, will all become Buddhas.
Chapter 14: Peaceful Practices
Mañjuà Ârë asks how a bodhisattva should spread the teaching. The Buddha explains the four qualities they should cultivate to teach the sà «tra. First, they should be self-controlled and correctly see the characteristics of phenomena and they should stay apart from worldly life. Secondly, they should see the emptiness of phenomena. Thirdly, they should be happy and never criticize and discourage people from enlightenment. Finally, they should have compassion for people and wish to attain Buddhahood so they may help liberate others. Virtues such as patience, gentleness, a calm mind, wisdom and compassion are to be cultivated.
Chapter 15: Emerging from the Earth
The bodhisattvas from other world systems say they will help the Buddha teach this sà «tra here, but the Buddha says their help is not neededâÂÂhe has many bodhisattvas here. Then the ground splits open and countless bodhisattvas spring up from the earth (led by ViÃÂà Âiá¹£á¹ÂacÃÂritra, AnantacÃÂritra, ViÃÂà ÂuddhacÃÂritra, and Supratiá¹£á¹ÂhitacÃÂritraâÂÂ), ready to teach. Maitreya asks who these bodhisattvas are since nobody has heard of them before. The Buddha affirms that he has taught all of these bodhisattvas himself in the remote past after attaining Buddhahood. Maitreya then asks how this is possible, since these bodhisattvas have been training for aeons.
Chapter 16: The Life Span of Tathagatha
The Buddha (Tathagatha) states that he actually attained Buddhahood countless quintillions of eons ago. He has only appeared to become awakened recently as a skillful means to teach others. The Buddha also says that he only appears to pass into final nirvÃÂá¹Âa, but actually he does not really do so. This is just an expedient teaching so that beings will not become complacent. The Buddha then teaches the Parable of the Excellent Doctor who entices his poisoned sons into taking an antidote by feigning his death. After they hear this they are shocked and take the medicine. The doctor then reveals he is still alive. Because the Buddha uses skillful means in this way, he should not be seen as a liar, but as an intelligent teacher.
Chapter 17: Merit
The Buddha explains the merit (punya) or benefits that come from listening to and believing in this teaching on the Buddha's lifespan. He says that this teaching has led countless bodhisattvas, as many as the sands of the Ganges, to various levels of spiritual accomplishment. He also says that there is greater benefit in hearing and believing the Lotus Sà «tra than practicing the first five perfections for eons. The Buddha states that those who have faith in this teaching will see this world as a pure land filled with bodhisattvas. Those who have faith in the sà «tra have already made offerings to past Buddhas and they do not need to build stupas or temples. These beings will develop excellent qualities and attain Buddhahood. This chapter also says that Caityas should be built to honor the Buddha.
Chapter 18: Rejoicing
The Buddha states that the merit generated from rejoicing in this sà «tra (or in even just a single line from it) is far greater than bringing thousands of beings to arhathood. The merits of listening to the sà «tra, for even a moment, are extensively praised in this chapter.
Chapter 19: Benefits of the Teacher of the Law
The Buddha praises the merits of those who are devoted to the Lotus Sà «tra. He states that their six sense bases (ayatanas) will become purified and develop the ability to experience the senses of billions of worlds as well as other supernatural powers.
Chapter 20: The Bodhisattva Never Disparaging
The Buddha tells a story about a previous life when he was a bodhisattva called SadÃÂparibhà «ta ("Never-disparaging" or "Never-disrespectful") and how he treated every person he met, good or bad, with respect, always remembering that they will become Buddhas. Never-disparaging experienced much ridicule and condemnation by other monastics and laypersons but he always responded by saying "I do not despise you, for you will become a Buddha." He continued to teach this sà «tra for many lifetimes until he reached Buddhahood.
Chapter 21: Supernatural Powers of the Thus Come One
This chapter reveals that the sà «tra contains all of the Buddha's secret spiritual powers. The bodhisattvas who have sprung from the earth (in chapter 15) are entrusted with the task of spreading and propagating it and they promise to do so. à ÂÃÂkyamuni and Prabhà «taratna extend their tongues into the Brahmàrealm, emitting numerous rays of light along with countless bodhisattvas. This miracle lasts for a hundred thousand years. Then they clear their throats and snap their fingers, which is heard in all worlds and all worlds shake. All beings in the universe are then given a vision of the Buddhas and bodhisattvas. All Buddhas praise à ÂÃÂkyamuni for teaching the Lotus. The Buddha says that the merits of teaching the sà «tra is immeasurable and that any place where it is being taught or copied is a holy place.
Chapter 22: Entrustment
The Buddha transmits the Lotus Sà «tra to all bodhisattvas in his congregation and entrusts them with its safekeeping and its propagation far and wide. The Buddha Prabhà «taratna in his jeweled stupa and the countless manifestations of Shakyamuni Buddha return to their respective Buddha-fields. According to Donald Lopez, the Lotus Sà «tra "appears to end with Chapter Twenty-Two, when the Buddha exhorts his disciples to spread the teaching, after which they return to their abodes...scholars speculate that this was the final chapter of an earlier version of the Lotus, with the last six chapters being interpolations." This is the final chapter in the Sanskrit versions and the alternative Chinese translation. Shioiri suggests that an earlier version of the sà «tra ended with this chapter and that chapters 23âÂÂ28 were inserted later into the Sanskrit version.
These chapters are focused on various bodhisattvas and their deeds.
Chapter 23: Former Affairs of Bodhisattva Medicine Kingï¼ÂèÂ¥çÂÂè©è©æ¬äºÂÃ¥ÂÂï¼Â
The Buddha tells the story of the 'Medicine King' (Bhaiá¹£ajyarÃÂja) bodhisattva, who, in a previous life as the bodhisattva Sarvasattvapriyadarà Âana, set his body on fire, lighting up many world systems for twelve years, as a supreme offering to a Buddha. This chapter teaches the practice "offering the body", which involves burning a part of one's body (such as toe, finger, or a limb) as an offering. The hearing and chanting of the Lotus Sà «tra is also said to cure diseases. The Buddha uses nine similes to declare that the Lotus Sà «tra is the king of all sà «tras.
Chapter 24: The Bodhisattva Gadgadasvaraï¼Âå¦Âé³è©è©åÂÂï¼Â
Gadgadasvara ('Wonderful Voice'), a bodhisattva from a distant world, visits Vulture Peak to worship the Buddha. Gadgadasvara once made offerings of various kinds of music to the Buddha MeghadundubhisvararÃÂja. His accumulated merits enable him to take on many different forms to propagate the Lotus Sà «tra.
This chapter is devoted to bodhisattva Avalokiteà Âvara (Skt. âÂÂLord Who Looks DownâÂÂ, Ch. Guanyin, âÂÂRegarder of the Cries of the WorldâÂÂ), describing him as a compassionate bodhisattva who hears the cries of sentient beings, and rescues those who call upon his name in various forms, which was explained when Aká¹£ayamati asks the Buddha to elaborate on the character of the bodhisattva Avalokiteà Âvara. Other names include the "Avalokiteà Âvara Sà «tra"ï¼Âè§Âä¸Âé³ç¶Âï¼Â, "Universal Gateway Chapter"ï¼Âæ®éÂÂÃ¥ÂÂï¼Âand it is often recited separately from the main sà «tra.
Chapter 26: DhÃÂraá¹Âëï¼ÂéÂÂç¾ å°¼åÂÂï¼Â
Hariti and several bodhisattvas offer sacred dhÃÂraá¹Âë (magical formulas) in order to protect those who keep and recite the Lotus Sà «tra.
Chapter 27: Former Affairs of King Wonderful Adornmentï¼Âå¦ÂèÂÂå´çÂÂæ¬äºÂÃ¥ÂÂï¼Â
This chapter tells the story of the conversion of King 'Wonderful-Adornment' by his two sons.
Chapter 28: Encouragement of Samantabhadraï¼Âæ®賢è©è©å¸ç¼åÂÂï¼Â
A bodhisattva called "Universal Virtue" or "All Good" (Samantabhadra) asks the Buddha how to preserve the sà «tra in the future. Samantabhadra promises to protect and guard all those who keep this sà «tra in the future. He says that those who uphold the sà «tra will be reborn in the TrÃÂyastriá¹Âà Âa and Tuá¹£ita heavens. He also says that those who uphold this sà «tra will have many good qualities and should be seen and respected as Buddhas.
According to Lopez, the Lotus "is clearly a work of high literary quality. Its authors are unknown, but they were likely highly educated Buddhist monks, fully at ease among the doctrines and tropes of Buddhism as it existed in India at the time." According to Peter Alan Roberts, the Lotus Sà «tra may have had its origin among the MahÃÂsÃÂá¹Âghika school and may have been written in a middle Indic language (a prakrit) that was subsequently Sanskritized. The idea that the sà «tra was originally in prakrit remains a contested claim among both secular and religious historians.
The Lotus Sà «tra was frequently cited in Indian scholarly treatises and compendiums and several authors of the Madhyamaka and the Yogacara school discussed and debated its doctrine of the One Vehicle. According to Jonathan Silk, the influence of the Lotus Sà «tra in India may have been limited, but "it is a prominent scripture in East Asian Buddhism." Jacqueline Stone and Stephen F. Teiser meanwhile write that "it is perhaps no exaggeration to say that the Lotus Sà «tra has been the most influential Buddhist scripture in East Asia." The sà «tra has most prominence in Tiantai (sometimes called "The Lotus School") and Nichiren Buddhism.
According to Donald Lopez "the general scholarly consensus is that the Lotus Sà «tra took shape in four phases." One of the earliest four layer theories of the development of the sà «tra was Kogaku Fuse's.
Lopez and Seishi Karashima outline these phases as follows:
Stephen F. Teiser and Jacqueline Stone opines that there is consensus about the stages of composition but not about the dating of these strata. Author Yoisho Tamura argues that the first stage of composition (Chapters 2âÂÂ9) was completed around 50 CE and expanded by chapters 10âÂÂ21 around 100 CE. He dates the third stage (Chapters 22âÂÂ27) around 150 CE.
According to Lopez, "the number of surviving manuscripts and manuscript fragments of the Lotus Sà «tra suggests that the text was copied often." The Lotus Sà «tra is also cited in numerous scholarly treatises and compendiums, including in the Compendium of Sà «tras (Sà «trasamuccaya, which cites four passages from the Lotus), in the Compendium of Training (à ÂiksÃÂsamuccaya, three passages), in the Dazhidu lun (23 citations) and in the Great Compendium of Sà «tras (MahÃÂsà «trasamuccaya) by the eleventh-century Bengali master Atià Âa. It is cited by Indian Buddhists such as Vasubandhu (in his commentary on the MahÃÂyÃÂnasaá¹Âgraha), Candrakërti (MadhyamakÃÂvatÃÂra-bhÃÂá¹£ya), à ÂÃÂntideva, Kamalaà Âëla and AbhayÃÂkaragupta.
According to ParamÃÂrtha (499âÂÂ569 CE), there were over fifty Indian commentaries on the Lotus. However, there is now only one surviving Indian commentary (which only survives in Chinese). It is attributed to Vasubandhu (but this has been questioned by scholars). This commentary asserts the superiority of the Lotus above all other sà «tras.
The Lotus Sà «tra<nowiki/>'s doctrine of the One Vehicle was not received equally by all Indian Buddhist traditions. While this doctrine was fully embraced by the Madhyamaka school, the YogÃÂcÃÂra school saw the Lotus Sà «tra as a provisional text. Thus, for the Indian YogÃÂcÃÂra thinkers, the doctrine of the One Vehicle should not be taken literally, since it is merely provisional (neyÃÂrtha). According to Donald Lopez "the YogÃÂcÃÂra commentators argue in turn that the declaration that there is but one vehicle is not definitive but provisional, requiring interpretation; it is not to be taken to mean that there are not, in fact, three vehicles. When the Buddha said that the Buddha vehicle was the one vehicle, he was exaggerating. What he meant was that it was the supreme vehicle." For YogÃÂcÃÂra scholars, this sà «tra was taught as an expedient means for the benefit of those persons who have entered the lesser à ÂrÃÂvaka vehicle but have the capacity to embrace the MahÃÂyÃÂna.
An Indian version of the Lotus Sà «tra was translated into Tibetan by Yeshé Dé, and the Indian translator Surendrabodhi during the reign of King Ralpachen (r. 815âÂÂ38). This version most closely matches the Chinese version of JñÃÂnagupta and Dharmagupta, as well as the Nepalese Sanskrit version.
Three translations of the Lotus Sà «tra into Chinese are extant. It was first translated into Chinese by 's team in 286 C. E. in Chang'an during the Western Jin period (265âÂÂ317 CE). It was initially held that the source text was in Sanskrit, however, the view that the source text was actually in a Prakrit language has gained widespread acceptance.
This early translation by Dharmaraká¹£a was superseded by a translation in seven fascicles by KumÃÂrajëva's team in 406 C.E. which became the standard translation in East Asian Buddhism. According to Jean-Noël Robert, KumÃÂrajëva relied heavily on the earlier version. The Sanskrit editions are not widely used outside of academia. KumÃÂrajëva's version is missing the Devadatta chapter which had been present in the Dharmaraksa version. The third extant version, The Supplemented Lotus Sà «tra of the Wonderful Dharma (Chinese: TiÃÂn PÃÂn Miào FàLián Huá Jëng), in 7 volumes and 27 chapters, is a revised version of KumÃÂrajëva's text, translated by JñÃÂnagupta and Dharmagupta in 601 C. E. This version included elements that were absent in the KumÃÂrajëva text, including the Devadatta chapter, various verses and the concluding part of chapter 25. Later, these elements were added back to the KumÃÂrajëva text.
The Chinese Lotus Sà «tra has been translated into other Asian languages including Uighur, Tangut, and more recently colloquial Chinese, Japanese, Vietnamese, and Korean.
One of KumÃÂrajëva's great disciples, Daosheng (355âÂÂ434), wrote the oldest surviving Chinese commentary on the Lotus Sà «tra (titled the Fahua jing yishu). For Daosheng, the central teaching of the sà «tra is the One Vehicle. According to Lopez, Daosheng divided the sà «tra into three parts (omitting the Devadatta Chapter): "the first thirteen chapters demonstrate that the cause of the three vehicles becomes the cause of the one vehicle. The next eight chapters demonstrate that the effect of the three vehicles is also the effect of the one vehicle. The final six chapters demonstrate that the followers of the three vehicles are the same as the followers of the one vehicle." Daosheng was also known for promoting the concept of Buddha nature and the idea that even deluded people will attain enlightenment.
Already during the Tang dynasty, Daoxuan (596âÂÂ667) was writing that the Lotus Sà «tra was "the most important sà «tra in China". Kuiji (632âÂÂ82), a disciple of Xuanzang, wrote a commentary on the Lotus. This commentary was translated into Tibetan and survives in the Tibetan Buddhist canon. Numerous other commentators from different Chinese Buddhist traditions wrote commentaries on the Lotus". One topic of debate among Chinese commentators to the Lotus was the "three carts or four carts" debate which focused on whether the One Vehicle was the same as the bodhisattva vehicle or a different vehicle that transcends the MahÃÂyÃÂna.
Chinese exegetes also disagreed on whether the Buddha of the Lotus Sà «tra had an infinite life or a finite life (of immeasurable length) as well as on the issue of whether the ultimate, primordial Buddha of the Lotus referred to the Dharma-body (dharmakaya), to the reward body (sambhogakaya), or to the manifest, physical body (nirmanakaya).
Perhaps the most influential Chinese commentator on the Lotus Sà «tra was Zhiyi (538âÂÂ597), a patriarch of the Tiantai School, who was said to have experienced awakening while reading the Lotus Sà «tra. Zhiyi was a student of Nanyue Huisi who was the leading authority of his time on the Lotus Sà «tra.
Zhiyi adopted Daosheng's division of the sà «tra into three parts. For Zhiyi, the first fourteen chapters are "the trace teaching" (Ch. jimen; shakumon in Japanese) and the second fourteen chapters are the "fundamental" or "original" teaching (benmen; Jp. honmon). For Zhiyi, the key message of the first part is the One Vehicle, while the key message of the second half (the fundamental teaching of the whole text) is the immeasurable lifespan of the Buddha. According to Lopez, "Zhiyi compares the fundamental teaching with the moon shining in the sky and the trace teaching with a moon reflected in a lake; the first is the source of the second." The Chinese practice of developing systems of doctrinal classifications (panjiao) was adopted by Zhiyi, which he interpreted through the doctrine of the One Vehicle. For Zhiyi, while other sà «tras provide different messages for their intended audiences, the Lotus is uniquely comprehensive and holistic.
Zhiyi's philosophical synthesis saw the Lotus Sà «tra as the final teaching of the Buddha and the highest teaching of Buddhism. There are two major commentaries from Zhiyi on the sà «tra, the Profound Meaning of the Lotus Sà «tra (Fahua xuanyi) which explains the main principles of the text and the Words and Phrases of the Lotus Sà «tra (æ³Âè¯æÂÂÃ¥ÂÂ¥ Fahua Wenzhu), which comments on specific passages. These two works were compiled by Zhiyi's disciple Guanding (561âÂÂ632). For Zhiyi, the central principle of the Lotus Sà «tra<nowiki/>'s One Vehicle is the "Threefold Truth", a doctrine he developed out of Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka philosophy which posited a twofold truth. For Zhiyi, this was the unifying principle which included all of the teachings of the Buddha's teachings and practices. According to Lopez and Stone, Zhiyi's view of the Lotus was an inclusive vision which had a place for every Buddhist sà «tra, teaching and practice.
Zhiyi also linked the teachings of the Lotus Sà «tra with the Buddha nature teachings of the MahÃÂyÃÂna MahÃÂparinirvÃÂá¹Âa Sà «tra. Zhiyi also interpreted the Buddha of the Lotus Sà «tra as referring to all three Buddha bodies of the Trikaya. According to Stone and Teiser, for Zhiyi "the dharma body is the truth that is realized; the reward body is the wisdom that realizes it; and the manifest body, a compassionate expression of that wisdom as the human Buddha who lived and taught in this world." For Zhiyi, Vairocana (the primordial Buddha) is seen as the "bliss body" (sambhogakÃÂya) of the historical Gautama Buddha. Zhiyi also wrote texts which outlined various spiritual practices that made use of the Lotus Sà «tra. For example, chanting the sà «tra is an element of one of the "Four samÃÂdhis" (sizhÃÂng sÃÂnmèi) in Zhiyi's magnum opus, the Mohe Zhiguan. He also composed the Lotus SamÃÂdhi Rite of Repentance (Fahua sanmei chanyi) based on the sà «tra. This rite is still performed by contemporary Chinese Tiantai and Japanese Tendai monastics.
The later Tiantai scholar Zhanran (711âÂÂ778) wrote sub-commentaries to Zhiyi's works on the Lotus. Based on his analysis of chapter 5, Zhanran would develop a new theory which held that even insentient beings such as rocks, trees and dust particles, possess Buddha-nature. This doctrine would be adopted and developed by Japanese Buddhists like Saichà  and Nichiren.
In China, the core Lotus Sà «tra was traditionally compiled with two other sà «tras, which serve as a prologue and epilogue. These are:
The combination of these three Sà «tras is often called the Threefold Lotus Sà «tra or Three-Part Dharma Flower Sà «tra (; Japanese: ). This tripartite scripture is the traditional edition of the "Lotus Sà «tra" in East Asian Buddhism.
The Threefold Lotus Sà «tra has also been an extremely influential text in Japanese Buddhism. One of the oldest Japanese texts is the Hà Âkke Gisho, a commentary on the Lotus Sà «tra based on the Chinese commentary by Fayun (467âÂÂ529 CE). By the 8th century, the sà «tra was important enough that the emperor had established a network of nunneries, the so-called "Temples for the Eradication of Sins through the Lotus" (Hà Âkke metsuzai no tera), in each province, as a way to protect the royal family and the state. There were also various Lotus Sà «tra rituals that were held throughout Japan, at both temples and aristocratic households. They were believed to help the dead and to grant long life to the living. These rituals are mentioned in The Tale of Genji. The sà «tra was also very influential on Japanese art and some copies of the text are highly elaborate and ornate.
The Tiantai school was brought to Japan by Saichà  (767âÂÂ822), who founded the Japanese Tendai tradition and wrote a commentary to the Lotus Sà «tra, which would remain central to Tendai. Saichà  attempted to create a great synthesis of the various Chinese Buddhist traditions in his new Tendai school (including esoteric, Pure Land, Zen and other elements), all which would be united under the Lotus One Vehicle doctrine. Saichà  also understood the Lotus Sà «tra to be a "great direct path" to Buddhahood which could be reached in this very life and in this very body. Saichà  taught that the Dragon king's daughter story was evidence for this direct path (jikidà Â) to Buddhahood which did not require three incalculable eons.
Like Zhiyi, the Japanese Tendai school (as well as the Nichiren tradition which is influenced by Tendai) divided the Lotus Sà «tra into two parts, the trace or provisional teachings (shaku-mon, Chapters 1âÂÂ14) and the essential teaching (hon-mon, Chapters 15âÂÂ22) of the true and original Buddha.
Post-Saichà  Tendai leaders like Ennin and Enchin also adopted further teachings from Esoteric Buddhism (mikkyà Â) into their interpretation and practice of the Lotus. These figures interpreted the Lotus as an esoteric text, and the Buddha of the Lotus Sà «tra became seen as timeless and omnipresent cosmic reality that is immanent in all things. By reciting mantras, performing mudras and using mandalas in esoteric rituals, Tendai monks sought to unite their body, speech and mind with that of the Buddha and attain "Buddhahood in this very body" (sokushin jà Âbutsu). According to Jacqueline Stone, in Tendai esotericism, "the cosmic Buddha is identified with the primordially enlightened Sakyamuni of the "Life Span" chapter, and his realmâÂÂthat is, the entire universeâÂÂis conceived in mandalic terms as an ever-present, ongoing Lotus Sà «tra assembly."
As a result of this interpretation, all the provisional Buddhas (such as Amida, Dainichi, and Yakushi) were integrated into the Primordial Buddha of immeasurable life from the latter half of the Lotus Sà «tra. These esoteric influences also led to the development of the Tendai concept of original enlightenment (hongaku hà Âmon). According to this theory, Buddhahood is not a distant goal, but is always present as the true inherent nature of all things. Buddhist practice is a way to realize this nature.
Apart from the major Heian period Tendai temples, there also arose groups of independent Lotus Sà «tra devotees (jikyà Âsha) or "Lotus holy ones" (Hà Âkke hijiri). Many of them were mountain ascetics, or recluses (tonsei) who disliked the large established temples and saw them as more concerned with worldly gain. They focused instead on practices based on the simple recitation, listening or reading of the Lotus Sà «tra in solitary places (bessho), something which did not require temples and ritual paraphernalia. Hà Âkke hijiri also engaged in esoteric taimitsu and Daoist immortality practices. These figures feature prominently in the Hà Âkke Genki, a collection of Lotus Sà «tra stories and miracles by the priest Chingen, which sees the Hà Âkke hijiri as being superior to aristocrats or traditional monks.
Tendai Buddhism was the dominant form of mainstream Buddhism in Japan for many years and the influential founders of later popular Japanese Buddhist sects including Nichiren, HÃ Ânen, Shinran and DÃ Âgen were trained as Tendai monks.
The Japanese monk Nichiren (1222âÂÂ1282) founded a new Buddhist school based on his belief that the Lotus Sà «tra is "the Buddha's ultimate teaching", and that the title is the essence of the sà «tra, "the seed of Buddhahood". He was originally a Tendai monk, but grew to believe that Tendai had become corrupt and had turned away from the Lotus Sà «tra and embraced all sorts of useless practices, such as esoteric Buddhism and Pure Land devotionalism. Nichiren taught that chanting the title of the Lotus Sà «tra in a phrase called the daimoku (Namu Myà Âhà  Renge Kyà Â, "Homage to the Sublime Dharma Lotus Blossom Sà «tra"). â was the only effective Buddhist practice in what he believed was the current degenerate age of Dharma decline (Skt. saddharmavipralopa, Jp. mappo). This was to be recited in front of a gohonzon ("object of veneration"). According to Stone, Nichiren believed that "the immanent Buddha realm is an ever-present reality" which one could access by this practice.
Nichiren held that current Buddhist sects were gravely mistaken and doomed to Avëci hell because they "slandered the true Dharma" (Skt. saddharmapratiksepa; Jp. hà Âbà Â) by seeing other teachings as being above or equal to the Lotus Sà «tra. He also held that the current social and political chaos in Japan was caused by this misbelief. He therefore tasked himself and his followers with informing as many people as possible by refuting the provisional teachings and encouraging them to abandon their misconceptions of Buddhism through personal engagement (shakubuku) and directing them to the one vehicle of the Lotus. He believed that establishing the true Dharma of the Lotus in Japan would lead to lasting peace and he identified with the Bodhisattva Vià Âiá¹£á¹ÂacÃÂritra (Superior Practices), leader of the bodhisattvas of the earth which appear in chapter 15.
Nichiren thus vehemently debated the teachings of all other Japanese Buddhist traditions in person and in print. This behavior would often lead to persecution. It was when he saw his own followers being persecuted that he decided it was time to establish the true teachings and inscribed the Dai Gohonzon for all humanity. Nichiren saw this persecution as a compassionate act of self-sacrifice, which needed to be endured. He found this ideal in chapters 10âÂÂ22 as the "third realm" of the Lotus Sà «tra (daisan hà Âmon) which emphasizes the need for a bodhisattva to endure the trials of life in the defiled sahàworld. For Nichiren, these trials and tribulations were termed shikidoku ("reading [the Lotus Sà «tra] with the body") and they were believed to lesson karmic retribution. Nichiren Buddhism went through various developments and schisms after the death of Nichiren. Nichiren prophesied this misconstruction and that's why he always emphasized to his disciples to "always follow the Law and not the person." The Law (Nam Myoho Renge Kyo) is absolute, whereas the person is relative.
The Lotus Sà «tra was also a key source for Dà Âgen (1200âÂÂ1253), the Japanese founder of Sà Âtà  Zen Buddhism. Dà Âgen writes in his Shà Âbà Âgenzà  that "compared with this sà «tra, all the other sà «tras are merely its servants, its relatives, for it alone expounds the truth." According to Taigen Dan Leighton, "While Dà Âgen's writings employ many sources, probably along with his own intuitive meditative awareness, his direct citations of the Lotus Sà «tra indicate his conscious appropriation of its teachings as a significant source" and that his writing "demonstrates that Dà Âgen himself saw the Lotus Sà «tra, 'expounded by all Buddhas in the three times,' as an important source for this self-proclamatory rhetorical style of expounding."
In his Shà Âbà Âgenzà Â, Dà Âgen directly discusses the Lotus Sà «tra in the essay Hà Âkke-Ten-Hà Âkke, "The Dharma Flower Turns the Dharma Flower". The essay uses a dialogue from the Platform Sà «tra between Huineng and a monk who has memorized the Lotus Sà «tra to illustrate the non-dual nature of Dharma practice and sà «tra study. During his final days, Dogen spent his time reciting and writing the Lotus Sà «tra in his room which he named "The Lotus Sà «tra Hermitage". The Sà Âtà  Zen monk Ryà Âkan also studied the Lotus Sà «tra extensively and this sà «tra was the biggest inspiration for his poetry and calligraphy.
The Rinzai Zen master Hakuin Ekaku (1687âÂÂ1768) claimed in a letter to have found the sà «tra disappointing upon first reading it at the age of sixteen, already an ordained monk; he continued by mentioning that, after joining the , <blockquote>âÂÂI took up the Lotus Sà «tra. Suddenly I penetrated to the perfect, true, ultimate meaning of the Lotus. The doubts I had held initially were destroyed and I became aware that the understanding I had obtained up to then was greatly in error. Unconsciously I uttered a great cry and burst into tears.âÂÂ</blockquote>
According to Shields, modernist Japanese interpretations of the Lotus Sà «tra begin with the early 20th century nationalist applications of the Lotus Sà «tra by Chigaku Tanaka, Nissho Honda, Seno'o, and Nisshà  Inoue. Japanese new religions began forming in the 19th century and the trend accelerated after World War II. Some of these groups have pushed the study and practice of the Lotus Sà «tra to a global scale.
According to scholar Jacqueline Stone, Soka Gakkai generally follows an exclusivist approach to the Lotus Sà «tra, believing that only Nichiren Buddhism can bring world peace. Sà Âkka Gakkai no longer teaches the differences between the two gates or "divisions" of the Lotus Sà «tra. Instead, the modern organization teaches that only the sincere recitation of the daimoku is the "Doctrine of Essential Teaching" and that this does not require any clerical priesthood or temples since the true sangha comprises all people "who believe in the Buddha Dharma of Nichiren".
Meanwhile, Risshà  Kà Âsei Kai follows an ecumenical, and inclusive approach and is known for its interfaith efforts and focus on world peace. According to its co-founder Niwano Nikkyà  (1906âÂÂ1999), "Lotus Sà «tra is not a proper noun, but the fundamental truthâÂÂGod, Allah, or the one vehicleâÂÂat the heart of all great religions."
In a similar fashion, Etai Yamada (1900âÂÂ1999), the 253rd head priest of the Tendai denomination conducted ecumenical dialogues with religious leaders around the world based on his inclusive interpretation of the Lotus Sà «tra, which culminated in a 1987 summit. He also used the Lotus Sà «tra to move his sect from a "temple Buddhism" perspective to one based on social engagement. Nichiren-inspired Buddhist organizations have shared their interpretations of the Lotus Sà «tra through publications, academic symposia, and exhibitions.
One of the first mentions of the Lotus Sà «tra by a westerner can be found in the work of the Catholic missionary Matteo Ricci. In his The True Doctrine of the Lord of Heaven (Tianzhu shiyi), published in 1603, Ricci mentions the Lotus Sà «tra and denounces its teaching.
Eugene Burnouf's Introduction àl'histoire du Buddhisme indien (1844) marks the start of modern academic scholarship of Buddhism in the West. According to Lopez, this tome "seems to have been originally intended to aid readers in understanding the Lotus Sà «tra," the translation of which Burnouf had completed in 1839. Burnouf decided to delay the publication of this translation so that he could write an introduction to it, that is, his 1844 Introduction. Burnouf's French translation of a Nepalese Sanskrit manuscript of the Lotus Sà «tra, titled "Le Lotus de la bonne loi traduit du Sanscrit accompagné dâÂÂun commentaire et de vingt et un mémoires relatifs au Buddhisme", was published posthumously in 1852.
Burnouf really appreciated the "parables" (Sanskrit: aupamya, "comparisons", "analogies", more accurately described as allegories) found in the Lotus, which reminded him of the parables of the New Testament. He would write "I know of nothing so Christian in all of Asia" and saw the Lotus as containing a "moral Christianity, full of compassion for all creatures." He also understood the Lotus Sà «tra (as well as other Mahayana works) to be later, more "developed" texts than the "simple" earlier sà «tras which contained more historical content and less metaphysical ideas.
A chapter of the Lotus Sà «tra was published in 1844, prior to Burnouf's translation being published. This chapter was published in the journal The Dial, a publication of the New England transcendentalists, and had been translated from French to English by Elizabeth Palmer Peabody. This chapter was the first English version of any Buddhist scripture.
An English translation of the Lotus Sà «tra from two Sanskrit manuscripts copied in Nepal around the 11th century was completed by Hendrik Kern in 1884 and published as Saddharma-Pundarîka, or, the Lotus of the True Law as part of the Sacred Books of the East project.
Western interest in the Lotus Sà «tra waned in the latter 19th century as Indo-centric scholars focused on older Pali and Sanskrit texts. However, Christian missionaries in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, based predominantly in China, became interested in KumÃÂrajëva's translation of the Lotus Sà «tra. These scholars attempted to draw parallels between the Old and New Testaments to earlier Nikaya sà «tras and the Lotus Sà «tra. Abbreviated and "Christianized" translations were published by Richard and Soothill.
After the Second World War, scholarly attention to the Lotus Sà «tra was inspired by renewed interest in Japanese Buddhism as well as archeological research in Dunhuang in Gansu, China. In 1976, Leon Hurvitz published The Scripture of the Lotus Blossom of the Fine Dharma, a scholarly English translation of the Lotus Sà «tra based on Kumarajiva's Chinese. Whereas the Hurvitz work was independent scholarship, other modern translations were sponsored by Japanese Buddhist institutions. For example, the 1975 Bunno Kato and Yoshiro Tamura translation of the "Threefold Lotus Sà «tra" was promoted by Rissho-kosei-kai, the Burton Watson translation was backed by Soka Gakkai and the Tsugunari Kubo and Akira Yuyama translation was sponsored by Bukkyà  Dendà  Kyà Âkai ("Society for the Promotion of Buddhism").
Translations into French, Spanish and German are also based on Kumarajiva's Chinese text. Each of these translations incorporate different approaches and styles that range from complex to simplified.
According to Gene Reeves, "the Lotus Sà «tra frequently advocates concrete practices, which are often related to the sà «tra itself. They are often given as sets of four to six practices, but include receiving and embracing the sà «tra, hearing it, reading and reciting it, remembering it correctly, copying it, explaining it, understanding its meaning, pondering it, proclaiming it, practicing as it teaches, honoring it, protecting it, making offerings to it, preaching it and teaching it to others, and leading others to do any of these things." The Sà «tra also promotes the building of stà «pas wherever the Lotus Sà «tra is being preached.
The Lotus Sà «tra also mentions the six paramitas and the Noble Eightfold Path. Other passages from the sà «tra have been seen as promoting certain ways of living. For example, the story of Never Disrespectful Bodhisattva in chapter 20 has been seen by some as teaching that we should see all beings as potential Buddhas and treat them accordingly. Similarly, other parts of the sà «tra have been interpreted as exhortations to share the Dharma of the Lotus with other people.
The sà «tra became an extremely important text for religious practice in East Asian Buddhism, especially through ritualized devotional practice. A particularly important set of practices are the "five practices of the preacher of the dharma" (found in Chapter 19), which are preserving (or "upholding"), reading, reciting, explaining, and copying the sà «tra.
According to Daniel Stevenson, "upholding the sà «tra," "does not connote a specific regimen of practice but functions as a generic designation for Lotus Sà «tra devotion in all its guises, above all devotion that is focused and sustained." Thus, it is a general term for enthusiastic embrace of the sà «tra. The term derived from the Sanskrit root dhr, related to dharani and could refer to the memorization and retention of the teaching as well as to the more abstract "apprehension" of the Dharma in meditative states of samadhi. Memorizing passages, chapters or the whole sà «tra thus became a major practice among Lotus Sà «tra devotees. Once memorized, the text could be recited as a daily practice. "Upholding the sà «tra" also referred to other practices, such as engaging in or promoting sà «tra copying (æÂÂç¶Â, chÃÂo jëng), as well as storing, enshrining and safekeeping of the physical copies of the sà «tra.
It was said that these practices were very meritorious and could lead to miracles. Stories dealing with Lotus Sà «tra miracles, such as Huixiang's Accounts of the Propagation of the Lotus Sà «tra (c. 7th century) and Zongxiao's Record of The Lotus Sà «traâÂÂs Manifest Responses became a popular genre in China and Japan. The popularity of these practices can be seen from the fact that a thousand copies of the text were sealed in the Dunhuang caves in the 11th century. In these texts, the largest sections deal with reading, chanting, and memorizing of the sà «tra, indicating the importance of these textual practices. In one famous example, the Tiantai patriarch Zhiyi is said to have memorized the entire sà «tra in his teens. The Lotus Sà «tra was also one of the most widely memorized Buddhist texts, a practice which became a requirement for Buddhist monastic ordination at various points throughout Chinese history.
Lotus Sà «tra textual practices were often sponsored by Asian states as a way to protect the nation but they were also carried out by people from all social classes. Ritualized recitation, copying of the text and lectures explaining the Lotus Sà «tra were performed at temples, shrines, and private residences. It was believed that these practices generated many benefits, from spiritual benefits like visions of Buddhas, rebirth in a pure land, awakening, and helping deceased relatives, to worldly benefits like peace, healing and protection from harm. In a similar fashion, the creation of different forms of visual, plastic, calligraphic, performance arts based on the Lotus Sà «tra also came to be seen as a form of spiritual practice and a skillful means. The production of these works, which included Lotus Sà «tra manuscripts themselves, could become highly ritualized processes. Likewise, the telling of miracle stories and composition of literature based on the Lotus Sà «tra was also seen as another way to practice its teachings.
In China, the practice extracted from chapter 20 of seeing all beings as Buddhas and paying homage to every person one encounters, called "universal veneration" (pujing æ®æ¬), became popular during early Medieval China. It was also adopted as the main practice of Xinxing (540âÂÂ594) "Three Stages Movement". Meanwhile, the self immolation of bodhisattva Medicine King inspired a controversial tradition of cremating parts of one's body as a kind of devotion. Chapter 25 has also been very influential on Asian Guanyin (è§Âé³) devotionalism.
The chanting of the Lotus was and remains widely practiced in Chinese Buddhism. It is often accompanied by the wooden fish instrument and preceded by various ritual acts, invocations, offerings and visualizations. The works of the Tiantai master Zhiyi include various Lotus Sà «tra based practices like the "Rite of Repentance for the Lotus SamÃÂdhi". Zhiyi was also said to have memorized the entire Threefold Lotus Sà «tra. Zongxiao (1151âÂÂ1214) mentions a practice which consisted in performing one or three prostrations for every character of the sà «tra.
In the Japanese Tendai school, the Lotus Sà «tra is an important part of Taimitsu ("Tendai esotericism") where it is part of certain rituals, such as the "Lotus rite" (Hà Âkke ho), "performed to eradicate sin, build merit, and realize awakening." According to Stone and Teiser, "the mandala used in this ritual depicts the two Buddhas Sakyamuni and Many Jewels seated together in its central court, as they appeared in the jeweled stà «pa of the Lotus Sà «tra."
In Nichiren Buddhism, the central practice is the recitation of the title of the Lotus Sà «tra, called the daimoku. This formula is Namu Myà Âhà  Renge Kyà Â. Nichiren Buddhists believe that this phrase contains the meaning of the entire sà «tra and contains and supersedes all other Buddhist practices (which are seen as provisional and no longer effective). By chanting this phrase with faith, one is said to be able to achieve Buddhahood. Nichiren Buddhists often chant this phrase while facing a "great mandala" (daimandara), or "revered object of worship" (gohonzon), a practice that was promoted by Nichiren himself. Nichiren believed that chanting while contemplating the gohonzon allowed to enter the mandala of the Lotus assembly.
The Lotus Sà «tra has had a great impact on East Asian literature, art, and folklore for over 1400 years. James Shields of Bucknell University remarked that, with regard to cultural influence, the Lotus Sà «tra "plays a role equivalent to the Bible in Europe or the QurâÂÂan in the Middle East."
Various events from the sà «tra are depicted in religious art. Wang argues that the explosion of art inspired by the Lotus Sà «tra, starting from the 7th and 8th centuries in China, was a confluence of text and the topography of the Chinese medieval mind in which the latter dominated.
Motifs from the Lotus Sà «tra figure prominently in the Dunhuang caves built in the Sui era. In the fifth century, the scene of Shakyamuni and Prabhutaratna Buddhas seated together as depicted in the 11th chapter of the Lotus Sà «tra became arguably the most popular theme in Chinese Buddhist art. Examples can be seen in a bronze plaque (year 686) at Hase-dera Temple in Japan and, in Korea, at Dabotap and Seokgatap Pagodas, built in 751, at Bulguksa Temple.
Tamura refers to the "Lotus Sà «tra literary genre." Its ideas and images are writ large in great works of Chinese and Japanese literature such as The Dream of the Red Chamber and The Tale of Genji. The Lotus Sà «tra has had an outsized influence on Japanese Buddhist poetry. Far more poems have been Lotus Sà «tra-inspired than other sà «tras. In the work Kanwa taisho myoho renge-kyo, a compendium of more than 120 collections of poetry from the Heian period, there are more than 1360 poems with references to the Lotus Sà «tra in just their titles.
According to Gene Reeves, "Japan's greatest twentieth-century storyteller and poet, Kenji Miyazawa, became devoted to the Lotus Sà «tra, writing to his father on his own deathbed that all he ever wanted to do was share the teachings of this sà «tra with others." Miyazawa implicitly references the sà «tra in his writings.
According to Jacqueline Stone and Stephen Teiser "the Noh drama and other forms of medieval Japanese literature interpreted Chapter 5, "Medicinal Herbs", as teaching the potential for Buddhahood in grasses and trees (sà Âmoku jà Âbutsu)."
The Lotus Sà «tra has inspired a branch of folklore based on figures in the sà «tra or subsequent people who have embraced it. The story of the Dragon King's daughter, who attained enlightenment in the 12th (Devadatta) chapter of the Lotus Sà «tra, appears in the Complete Tale of Avalokiteà Âvara and the Southern Seas and the Precious Scroll of Sudhana and Longnü folkstories. The Miraculous Tales of the Lotus Sà «tra is a collection of 129 stories with folklore motifs based on "Buddhist pseudo-biographies."
In the Kongà  Range surrounding Osaka, Japan, the Katsuragi 28 Shuku is a series of sà «tra mounds corresponding to each of the twenty-eight chapters of the Lotus Sà «tra. According to legend, each chapter of the Lotus Sà «tra was buried in a separate location by En no Gyoja, the mythical 7th-century founder of Shugendà Â.