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Theridiidae

Theridiidae, also known as the tangle-web spiders, cobweb spiders and comb-footed spiders, is a large family of araneomorph spiders first described by Carl Jakob Sundevall in 1833. This diverse, globally distributed family includes around 3,000 species in 128 genera, and is the most common arthropod group found in human dwellings throughout the world.

Theridiid spiders are both entelegyne, meaning that the females have a genital plate, and ecribellate, meaning that they spin sticky capture silk instead of woolly silk. They have a comb of serrated bristles (setae) on the tarsus of the fourth leg.

The family includes some model organisms for research, including the medically important widow spiders. They are important to studies characterizing their venom and its clinical manifestation, but widow spiders are also used in research on spider silk and sexual biology, including sexual cannibalism. Anelosimus are also model organisms, used for the study of sociality, because it has evolved frequently within the genus, allowing comparative studies across species, and because it contains species varying from solitary to permanently social. These spiders are also a promising model for the study of inbreeding because all permanently social species are highly inbred.

The Hawaiian Theridion grallator is used as a model to understand the selective forces and the genetic basis of color polymorphism within species. T. grallator is known as the "happyface" spider, as certain morphs have a pattern resembling a smiley face or a grinning clown face on their yellow body.

Webs

They often build tangle space webs, hence the common name, but Theridiidae has a large diversity of spider web forms. Many trap ants and other ground dwelling insects using elastic, sticky silk trap lines leading to the soil surface. Webs remain in place for extended periods and are expanded and repaired, but no regular pattern of web replacement has been observed.

The well studied kleptoparasitic members of Argyrodinae (Argyrodes, Faiditus, and Neospintharus) live in the webs of larger spiders and pilfer small prey caught by their host's web. They eat prey killed by the host spider, consume silk from the host web, and sometimes attack and eat the host itself.

Theridiid gumfoot-webs consist of frame lines that anchor them to surroundings and of support threads, which possess viscid silk. These can either have a central retreat (Achaearanea-type) or a peripheral retreat (Latrodectus-type). Building gum-foot lines is a unique, stereotyped behaviour, and is likely homologous for Theridiidae and its sister family Nesticidae.

Among webs without gumfooted lines, some contain viscid silk (Theridion-type) and some that are sheet-like, which do not contain viscid silk (Coleosoma-type). However, there are many undescribed web forms.

Taxonomy

The largest genus is Theridion with over 600 species, but it is not monophyletic. Parasteatoda, previously Achaearanea, is another large genus that includes the North American common house spider.

Genera

, this family includes 138 genera and 2,619 species:

  • Achaearanea <small>Strand, 1929</small> – Gabon, Comoros, South Africa, Ivory Coast, China, Southeast Asia, India, Canary Islands, Puerto Rico, Costa Rica, Panama, Australia, South America
  • Achaearyopa <small>Barrion & , 1995</small> – Philippines
  • Achaeridion <small>Wunderlich, 2008</small> – Turkey
  • Allothymoites <small>Ono, 2007</small> – China, Japan, Vietnam
  • Ameridion <small>Wunderlich, 1995</small> – North America, South America
  • Anatea <small>Berland, 1927</small> – Australia, New Caledonia
  • Anatolidion <small>Wunderlich, 2008</small> – Algeria, Morocco, Europe
  • Anelosimus <small>Simon, 1891</small> – Africa, Asia, Hispaniola, Jamaica, Mexico, United States, Australia, New Guinea, South America
  • Anttheridion <small> & Vanuytven, 2025</small> – Democratic Republic of the Congo, Malaysia
  • Argyrodella <small>Saaristo, 2006</small> – Madagascar, Seychelles
  • Argyrodes <small>Simon, 1864</small> – Africa, Asia, Canary Islands, Jamaica, Hawaii, Mexico, United States, Oceania, French Guiana, Galapagos, Peru, Caribbean to Argentina, East Africa, Mediterranean to West Africa, Tongatabu. Introduced to Seychelles, South Africa, St. Helena, India, Hawaii, Madagascar?
  • Ariamnes <small>Thorell, 1869</small> – DR Congo, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, South Africa, Guinea-Bissau, Asia, Cuba, Hispaniola, Costa Rica, Panama, Hawaii, Mexico, Australia, Papua New Guinea, New Zealand, Brazil, Peru
  • Asagena <small>Sundevall, 1833</small> – Algeria, Tunisia, Asia, Switzerland, Russia, Greece, Italy, Slovenia, France, North America
  • Asiopisinus <small>Hu, Wei, Liu & Xu, 2025</small> – Eastern Asia
  • Asygyna <small>, 2006</small> – Madagascar
  • Audifia <small>Keyserling, 1884</small> – Congo, Guinea-Bissau, Bolivia, Brazil
  • Bardala <small>Saaristo, 2006</small> – Seychelles
  • Borneoridion <small>Deeleman & Wunderlich, 2011</small> – Malaysia
  • Brunepisinus <small>Yoshida & Koh, 2011</small> – Borneo
  • Cabello <small>Levi, 1964</small> – Venezuela
  • Cameronidion <small>Wunderlich, 2011</small> – Malaysia
  • Campanicola <small>Yoshida, 2015</small> – Eastern Asia
  • Canalidion <small>Wunderlich, 2008</small> – Russia, Scandinavia
  • Carniella <small>Thaler & Steinberger, 1988</small> – Angola, China, Korea, Taiwan, Indonesia, Thailand, Nepal, Central Europe, Romania, Belgium
  • Cephalobares <small>O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1871</small> – China, India, Sri Lanka
  • Cerocida <small>Simon, 1894</small> – Brazil, Guyana, Venezuela
  • Chikunia <small>Yoshida, 2009</small> – Asia, Russia
  • Chorizopella <small>Lawrence, 1947</small> – South Africa
  • Chrosiothes <small>Simon, 1894</small> – Eastern Asia, Dominican Rep, Jamaica, St. Vincent, Mexico, United States, South America
  • Chrysso <small>O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1882</small> – Asia, Hungary, Russia, France, Trinidad, Costa Rica, Panama, North America, South America
  • Coleosoma <small>O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1882</small> – Cape Verde, Asia
  • Coscinida <small>Simon, 1895</small> – Angola, Congo, Tanzania, Asia, southern Europe
  • Craspedisia <small>Simon, 1894</small> – China, Hispaniola, Brazil
  • Crustulina <small>Menge, 1868</small> – Ethiopia, Madagascar, Tanzania, Algeria, Egypt, Morocco, Asia, Canary Islands, Ukraine, Russia, Jamaica, North America, Australia, New Caledonia, New Guinea, East Africa
  • Cryptachaea <small>Archer, 1946</small> – Asia, Russia, Trinidad, Costa Rica, Panama, North America, Australia, New Zealand, South America
  • Cyllognatha <small>L. Koch, 1872</small> – India, Australia, Samoa
  • Deelemanella <small>Yoshida, 2003</small> – Madagascar, Malaysia, Papua New Guinea
  • Dipoena <small>Thorell, 1869</small> – Africa, Asia, Europe, North America, Australia, Vanuatu, South America
  • Dipoenata <small>Wunderlich, 1988</small> – Madeira, Malta, Panama, Brazil, Venezuela
  • Dipoenura <small>Simon, 1909</small> – Sierra Leone, China, Indonesia, Laos, Vietnam, India
  • Echinotheridion <small>Levi, 1963</small> – Canary Islands, Madeira, South America
  • Emertonella <small>Bryant, 1945</small> – China, Mexico, United States. Introduced to China, Japan, India, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, New Guinea
  • Enoplognatha <small>, 1880</small> – South Africa, Cape Verde, Asia, Europe, North America, Australia, Chile, Peru, North Africa. Introduced to St. Helena, Canada
  • Episinus <small>Walckenaer, 1809</small> – Africa, Asia, Europe, Panama, Mexico, United States, New Zealand, South America
  • Euryopis <small>Menge, 1868</small> – Africa, Asia, Europe, Jamaica, North America, Australia, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil
  • Eurypoena <small>Wunderlich, 1992</small> – Cape Verde, Canary Islands
  • Exalbidion <small>Wunderlich, 1995</small> – Guatemala, Panama, Mexico, Caribbean to Brazil
  • Faiditus <small>Keyserling, 1884</small> – North America, South America
  • Famakytta <small>Pett & Agnarsson, 2025</small> – Madagascar, Seychelles, Korea, India, New Guinea
  • Glebych <small>Eskov & Marusik, 2021</small> – Peru
  • Gmogala <small>Keyserling, 1890</small> – Australia, New Guinea
  • Grancanaridion <small>Wunderlich, 2011</small> – Canary Islands
  • Guaraniella <small>Baert, 1984</small> – Brazil, Paraguay
  • Gushangzao <small>Lin & Li, 2024</small> – China, Japan
  • Gyro <small>Lin & Li, 2024</small> – China
  • Hadrotarsus <small>Thorell, 1881</small> – Taiwan, Australia, New Guinea. Introduced to Belgium
  • Helenidion <small>Sherwood, Marusik, Fowler, Stevens & Joshua, 2024</small> – St. Helena
  • Helvibis <small>Keyserling, 1884</small> – Trinidad, Panama, Brazil, Chile, Peru
  • Helvidia <small>Thorell, 1890</small> – Indonesia
  • Hentziectypus <small>Archer, 1946</small> – North America, Bolivia, Brazil, Colombia
  • Heterotheridion <small>Wunderlich, 2008</small> – China, Caucasus, Iran, Turkey, Russia
  • Hetschkia <small>Keyserling, 1886</small> – Brazil
  • Histagonia <small>Simon, 1895</small> – Botswana, South Africa
  • Icona <small>Forster, 1955</small> – New Zealand
  • Jamaitidion <small>Wunderlich, 1995</small> – Jamaica
  • Janula <small>Strand, 1932</small> – Asia, North America, Australia, South America
  • Keijiella <small>Yoshida, 2016</small> – Eastern Asia, Laos
  • Knoflachia <small>Marusik & Eskov, 2024</small> – Russia
  • Kochiura <small>Archer, 1950</small> – Cape Verde, St. Helena, Western Asia, Canary Islands, Madeira, Brazil, Chile, North Africa, Juan Fernández Islands
  • Landoppo <small>Barrion & Litsinger, 1995</small> – Philippines
  • Lasaeola <small>Simon, 1881</small> – Asia, Azores, Canary Islands, Russia, Portugal, Spain, Panama, Mexico, United States, Peru, Venezuela
  • Latrodectus <small>Walckenaer, 1805</small> – Africa, Asia, Europe, North America, New Zealand, South America
  • Lokitandroka <small>Pett & Agnarsson, 2025</small> – Comoros, Madagascar
  • Macaridion <small>Wunderlich, 1992</small> – Canary Islands, Madeira
  • Magnopholcomma <small>Wunderlich, 2008</small> – Australia
  • Megama <small>Hu, Zhong, Liu & Li, 2026</small> – China, Japan
  • Meotipa <small>Simon, 1895</small> – Asia, Pacific Islands. Introduced to Americas, Tropical Africa
  • Molione <small>Thorell, 1893</small> – Asia
  • Moneta <small>O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1871</small> – Seychelles, Asia, Russia, Australia, New Caledonia, New Zealand
  • Montanidion <small>Wunderlich, 2011</small> – Malaysia
  • Nanume <small>Saaristo, 2006</small> – Seychelles
  • Neopisinus <small>Marques, Buckup & Rodrigues, 2011</small> – Cuba, Hispaniola, Panama, Mexico, Brazil, Peru
  • Neospintharus <small>Exline, 1950</small> – Madagascar, Seychelles, Asia, Cyprus, Greece, Panama, North America, South America
  • Neottiura <small>Menge, 1868</small> – Algeria, Asia, Europe
  • Nesopholcomma <small>Ono, 2010</small> – Japan
  • Nesticodes <small>Archer, 1950</small> – Central. Introduced to St. Helena, China, Japan, Indonesia, Sri Lanka, Macaronesia, New Zealand, North Africa, Pacific Islands
  • Nihonhimea <small>Yoshida, 2016</small> – Seychelles, Asia. Introduced to Pakistan, Australia, New Guinea
  • Nipponidion <small>Yoshida, 2001</small> – Japan
  • Nojimaia <small>Yoshida, 2009</small> – China, Japan
  • Ohlertidion <small>Wunderlich, 2008</small> – Russia, North America
  • Okumaella <small>Yoshida, 2009</small> – Japan, Korea
  • Paidiscura <small>Archer, 1950</small> – Cape Verde, China, Japan, Korea, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Turkey, Europe, North Africa to Middle East
  • Parasteatoda <small>Archer, 1946</small> – Tunisia, Asia, Russia, Australia, New Guinea, Solomon Islands
  • Paratheridula <small>Levi, 1957</small> – USA to Chile
  • Pholcomma <small>Thorell, 1869</small> – Japan, Caucasus, Iran, Turkey, Azores, North America, New Zealand, Niue, Samoa, Argentina, Brazil, North Africa
  • Phoroncidia <small>Westwood, 1835</small> – Africa, Asia, Europe, Cuba, Jamaica, North America, Australia, Fiji, New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea, New Zealand, Samoa, South America
  • Phycosoma <small>O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1880</small> – Africa, Madagascar, Seychelles, Asia, Russia, Jamaica, Panama, New Zealand, Galapagos. Introduced to Hawaii
  • Phylloneta <small>Archer, 1950</small> – Asia, Russia, Spain, United States, North Africa. Introduced to St. Helena
  • Physcoa <small>Thorell, 1895</small> – China
  • Platnickina <small>Koçak & Kemal, 2008</small> – Kenya, Cape Verde, Asia, Russia, North America
  • Proboscidula <small>Miller, 1970</small> – Angola, Rwanda
  • Propostira <small>Simon, 1894</small> – India, Sri Lanka
  • Pycnoepisinus <small>Wunderlich, 2008</small> – Kenya
  • Rhinocosmetus <small>Vanuytven, Jocqué & Deeleman-Reinhold, 2024</small> – Asia
  • Rhinoliparus <small>Vanuytven, Jocqué & Deeleman-Reinhold, 2024</small> – Southeast Asia, Australia, New Caledonia, Papua New Guinea
  • Rhomphaea <small>L. Koch, 1872</small> – Mozambique, Seychelles, Tanzania, South Africa, St. Helena, Asia, Europe, St. Vincent, New Zealand, French Polynesia, Samoa, Argentina, Brazil, Venezuela. Introduced to India
  • Robertus <small>O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1879</small> – Democratic Republic of the Congo, Asia, Europe, North America
  • Ruborridion <small>Wunderlich, 2011</small> – India, Spain
  • Rugathodes <small>Archer, 1950</small> – Kazakhstan, Japan, Iran, Azores, Canary Islands, Madeira, Russia, North America. Introduced to Britain
  • Sardinidion <small>Wunderlich, 1995</small> – Georgia, Turkey, North Africa
  • Selkirkiella <small>Berland, 1924</small> – Argentina, Chile, Falkland Islands
  • Sesato <small>Saaristo, 2006</small> – Seychelles
  • Seycellesa <small>Koçak & Kemal, 2008</small> – Seychelles
  • Simitidion <small>Wunderlich, 1992</small> – Tunisia, Kazakhstan, Western Asia, Canary Islands, Cyprus, Greece, Spain, North Africa. Introduced to Canada
  • Spheropistha <small>, 1957</small> – Eastern Asia, Australia
  • Spinembolia <small>Saaristo, 2006</small> – Seychelles, China, Indonesia
  • Spintharus <small>Hentz, 1850</small> – North America, Brazil, Saint Kitts
  • Steatoda <small>Sundevall, 1833</small> – Worldwide
  • Stemmops <small>O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1894</small> – Asia, North America, South America
  • Stoda <small>Saaristo, 2006</small> – Seychelles
  • Styposis <small>Simon, 1894</small> – Congo, Puerto Rico, Nicaragua, Panama, United States, South America
  • Takayus <small>Yoshida, 2001</small> – China, Japan, Korea, Russia
  • Tamanidion <small>Wunderlich, 2011</small> – Malaysia
  • Theonoe <small>Simon, 1881</small> – Tanzania, Austria, Germany, Spain, North America
  • Theridion <small>Walckenaer, 1805</small> – Worldwide
  • Theridula <small>Emerton, 1882</small> – Kenya, Madagascar, Tunisia, China, Japan, Korea, Madeira, Spain, Guatemala, Panama, North America, Brazil, Ecuador, Peru
  • Thwaitesia <small>O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1881</small> – Africa, China, Indonesia, Myanmar, Vietnam, India, Sri Lanka, Trinidad, Australia, New Guinea, Brazil
  • Thymoites <small>Keyserling, 1884</small> – Tanzania, China, Japan, Korea, Indonesia, Vietnam, Russia, Scandinavia, North America, South America
  • Tidarren <small>Chamberlin & Ivie, 1934</small> – Africa, Yemen, Canary Islands, Spain. Introduced to Venezuela
  • Tomoxena <small>Simon, 1895</small> – Indonesia, India
  • Troglotheridion <small>Hu & Liu, 2025</small> – China
  • Trust <small>Sherwood, Marusik, Wilkins, P. Ashmole & M. Ashmole, 2024</small> – St. Helena
  • Vigdisia <small>Agnarsson, , Yu & , 2025</small> – Madagascar
  • Wamba <small>O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1896</small> – Panama, United States, Ecuador, Caribbean to Argentina
  • Wirada <small>Keyserling, 1886</small> – Mexico, South America
  • Yoroa <small>Baert, 1984</small> – Australia, New Guinea
  • Yunohamella <small>Yoshida, 2007</small> – China, Japan, Korea, Indonesia, Poland, Russia, Estonia, Finland
  • Zercidium <small>, 1977</small> – St. Helena

About 35 extinct genera have also been placed in the family. The oldest known stem-group member of the family is Cretotheridion from the Cenomanian aged Burmese amber of Myanmar.

References

Further reading

  • Agnarsson I. 2006c. Phylogenetic placement of Echinotheridion (Araneae: Theridiidae) – do male sexual organ removal, emasculation, and sexual cannibalism in Echinotheridion and Tidarren represent evolutionary replicas? Invertebrate Systematics 20: 415–429. PDF
  • Agnarsson I. 2004. Morphological phylogeny of cobweb spiders and their relatives (Araneae, Araneoidea, Theridiidae). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society 141: 447–626. PDF
  • Arnedo, M.A., Coddington, J., Agnarsson, I. & Gillespie, R.G. (2004). From a comb to a tree: phylogenetic relationships of the comb-footed spiders (Araneae, Theridiidae) inferred from nuclear and mitochondrial genes. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 31:225–245. PDF
  • Arnedo MA, Agnarsson I, Gillespie RG. In Press. Molecular insights into the phylogenetic structure of the spider genus Theridion (Araneae, Theridiidae) and the origin of the Hawaiian Theridion-like fauna. Zoologica Scripta.
  • Aviles, L., Maddison, W.P. and Agnarsson, I. 2006. A new independently derived social spider with explosive colony proliferation and a female size dimorphism. Biotropica, 38: 743–753.
  • Gillespie, R.G. and Tabashnik, B.E. 1994. Foraging Behavior of the Hawaiian Happy Face Spider (Araneae, Theridiidae). Annals of the Entomological Society of America, 87: 815–822.
  • Oxford, G.S. and Gillespie, R.G. 1996. Genetics of a colour polymorphism in Theridion grallator (Araneae: Theridiidae), the Hawaiian happy-face spider, from greater Maui. Heredity, 76: 238–248.

External links