In the oldest texts of Buddhism, dhyÃÂna () or jhÃÂna (PÃÂli) is a component of the training of the mind (bhÃÂvanÃÂ), commonly translated as meditation, to withdraw the mind from the automatic responses to sense-impressions and "burn up" the defilements, leading to a "state of perfect equanimity and awareness (upekkhÃÂ-sati-parisuddhi)." DhyÃÂna may have been the core practice of pre-sectarian Buddhism, in combination with several related practices which together lead to perfected mindfulness and detachment.
In the later commentarial tradition, which has survived in present-day TheravÃÂda, dhyÃÂna is equated with "concentration", a state of one-pointed absorption in which there is a diminished awareness of the surroundings. In the contemporary TheravÃÂda-based Vipassana movement, this absorbed state of mind is regarded as unnecessary and even non-beneficial for the first stage of awakening, which has to be reached by mindfulness of the body and vipassanÃÂ (insight into impermanence). Since the 1980s, scholars and practitioners have started to question these positions, arguing for a more comprehensive and integrated understanding and approach, based on the oldest descriptions of dhyÃÂna in the suttas.
In Buddhist traditions of Chan and Zen (the names of which are, respectively, the Chinese and Japanese pronunciations of dhyÃÂna), as in Theravada and Tiantai, anapanasati (mindfulness of breathing), which is transmitted in the Buddhist tradition as a means to develop dhyana, is a central practice. In the Chan/Zen-tradition this practice is ultimately based on SarvastivÃÂda meditation techniques transmitted since the beginning of the Common Era.
DhyÃÂna, Pali jhana, from Proto-Indo-European root *âÂÂdheie-, "to see, to look", "to show". Developed into Sanskrit root âÂÂdhë and n. dhë, which in the earliest layer of text of the Vedas refers to "imaginative vision" and associated with goddess Saraswati with powers of knowledge, wisdom and poetic eloquence. This term developed into the variant âÂÂdhyÃÂ, "to contemplate, meditate, think", from which dhyÃÂna is derived.
According to Buddhaghosa (5th century CE TheravÃÂda exegete), the term jhÃÂna (Skt. dhyÃÂna) is derived from the verb jhayati, "to think or meditate", while the verb jhapeti, "to burn up", explicates its function, namely burning up opposing states, burning up or destroying "the mental defilements preventing [...] the development of serenity and insight."
Commonly translated as meditation, and often equated with "concentration", though meditation may refer to a wider scale of exercises for bhÃÂvanÃÂ, development. DhyÃÂna can also mean "attention, thought, reflection".
Zoroastrianism in Persia, which has Indo-Iranian linguistic and cultural roots, developed the related practice of daena.
The PÃÂḷi Canon describes four progressive states of jhÃÂna called rà «pa jhÃÂna ("form jhÃÂna"), and four additional meditative attainments called arà «pa ("without form").
Meditation and contemplation form an integrated set of practices with several other practices, which are fully realized with the onset of dhyÃÂna. As described in the Noble Eightfold Path, right view leads to leaving the household life and becoming a wandering monk. Sëla (morality) comprises the rules for right conduct. Right effort, or the four right efforts, which already contains elements of dhyÃÂna, aim to prevent the arising of unwholesome states, and to generate wholesome states. This includes indriya samvara (sense restraint), controlling the response to sensual perceptions, not giving in to lust and aversion but simply noticing the objects of perception as they appear. Right effort and mindfulness ("to remember to observe"), notably mindfulness of breathing, calm the mind-body complex, releasing unwholesome states and habitual patterns, and encouraging the development of wholesome states and non-automatic responses. By following these cumulative steps and practices, the mind becomes set, almost naturally, for the equanimity of dhyÃÂna, reinforcing the development of wholesome states, which in return further reinforces equanimity and mindfulness.
Grouped into the jhÃÂna-scheme are four meditative states referred to in the early texts as arà «pa-ÃÂyatanas. These are also referred to in commentarial literature as arà «pa-jhÃÂnas ("formless" or "immaterial" jhÃÂnas), corresponding to the arà «pa-loka (translated as the "formless realm" or the "formless dimensions"), to be distinguished from the first four jhÃÂnas (rà «pa jhÃÂnas). In the Buddhist canonical texts, the word "jhÃÂna" is never explicitly used to denote them; they are instead referred to as ÃÂyatana. However, they are sometimes mentioned in sequence after the first four jhÃÂnas (other texts, e.g. MN 121, treat them as a distinct set of attainments) and thus came to be treated by later exegetes as jhÃÂnas.
The four arà «pa-ÃÂyatanas/arà «pa-jhÃÂnas are:
Beyond the dimension of neither perception nor non-perception lies a state called nirodha samÃÂpatti, the "cessation of perception, feelings and consciousness". Only in commentarial and scholarly literature, this is sometimes called the "ninth jhÃÂna". Another name for this state is saññÃÂvedayitanirodha ("cessation of perception and feeling"). According to Buddhaghosa's (XXIII, 18), it is characterized by the temporary suppression of consciousness and its concomitant mental factors, so the contemplative reaches a state unconscious (acittaka) for a week at most. In the nirodha the meditator is not dead: life-force (ÃÂyu) and bodily heat (usmÃÂ) remain. Neuroscientists have recently studied this phenomenon empirically and proposed a model for its neural-substrate.
While dhyana typically refers to the four jhanas/dhyanas, the term also refers to a set of practices which seem to go back to a very early stage of the Buddhist tradition. These practices are the contemplation on the body-parts and their repulsiveness (patikulamanasikara); contemplation on the elements of which the body is composed; contemplation on the stages of decay of a dead body; and mindfulness of breathing (anapanasati). These practices are described in the Satipatthana Sutta of the Pali canon and the equivalent texts of the Chinese agamas, in which they are interwoven with the factors of the four dhyanas or the seven factors of awakening (bojjhanga). This set of practices was also transmitted via the Dhyana sutras, which are based on the Sarvastivada-tradition, forming the basis of the Chan/Zen-tradition.
The Buddhist tradition has incorporated two traditions regarding the use of jhÃÂna. There is a tradition that stresses attaining insight (vipassanÃÂ) as the means to awakening (bodhi, prajñÃÂ, kenshà Â) and liberation (vimutti, nibbÃÂna). But the Buddhist tradition has also incorporated the yogic tradition, as reflected in the use of jhÃÂna as a concentrative practice, whichâÂÂin some interpretationsâÂÂis rejected in other sà «tras as not resulting in the final result of liberation. One solution to this contradiction is the conjunctive use of vipassanàand samatha.
The , Majjhima Nikaya 36, narrates the story of the Buddha's awakening. According to this story, he learned two kinds of meditation from two teachers, Uddaka RÃÂmaputta and ÃÂḷÃÂra KÃÂlÃÂma. These forms of meditation did not lead to liberation, and he then underwent harsh ascetic practices, with which he eventually also became disillusioned. The Buddha then recalled a meditative state he entered by chance as a child:
Originally, the practice of dhyÃÂna itself may have constituted the core liberating practice of early Buddhism, since in this state all "pleasure and pain" had waned. According to Vetter,
The time of the Buddha saw the rise of the à Âramaá¹Âa movement, ascetic practitioners with a body of shared teachings and practices. The strict delineation of this movement into Jainism, Buddhism and brahmanical/Upanishadic traditions is a later development. According to Crangle, the development of meditative practices in ancient India was a complex interplay between Vedic and non-Vedic traditions. According to Bronkhorst, the four rà «pa-jhÃÂnas may be an original contribution of the Buddha to the religious practices of ancient India, forming an alternative to the ascetic practices of the Jains and similar à Âramaá¹Âa traditions, while the arà «pa-ÃÂyatanas were incorporated from non-Buddhist ascetic traditions.
Kalupahana argues that the Buddha "reverted to the meditational practices" he had learned from ÃÂḷÃÂra KÃÂlÃÂma and Uddaka RÃÂmaputta, "directed at the appeasement of mind rather than the development of insight." Moving beyond these initial practices, reflection gave him the essential insight into conditioning, and taught him how to appease his "dispositional tendencies", without either being dominated by them, nor completely annihilating them.
Wynne argues that the attainment of the formless meditative absorption was incorporated from Brahmanical practices, and have Brahmnanical cosmogenies as their doctrinal background. Wynne therefore concludes that these practices were borrowed from a Brahminic source, namely Uddaka RÃÂmaputta and ÃÂḷÃÂra KÃÂlÃÂma. Yet the Buddha rejected their doctrines, as they were not liberating, and discovered his own path to awakening, which "consisted of the adaptation of the old yogic techniques to the practice of mindfulness and attainment of insight." Thus "radically transform[ed]" application of yogic practices was conceptualized in the scheme of the four jhÃÂnas.
YetâÂÂaccording to BronkhorstâÂÂthe Buddha's teachings developed primarily in response to Jain teachings, not Brahmanical teachings,and the account of the Buddha practicing under Uddaka RÃÂmaputta and ÃÂḷÃÂra KÃÂlÃÂma is entirely fictitious, and meant to flesh out the mentioning of those names in the post-enlightenment narrative in Majjhima Nikaya 36. Vishvapani notes that the Brahmanical texts cited by Wynne assumed their final form long after the Buddha's lifetime, with the Mokshadharma postdating him. Vishvapani further notes that Uddaka RÃÂmaputta and ÃÂḷÃÂra KÃÂlÃÂma may well have been sramanic teachers, as the Buddhist tradition asserts, not Brahmins.
A stock phrase in the canon states that one develops the four rupa-jhÃÂnas and then attains liberating insight. While the texts often refer to comprehending the Four Noble Truths as constituting this "liberating insight", Schmithausen notes that the Four Noble Truths as constituting "liberating insight" (here referring to paññÃÂ) is a later addition to texts such as Majjhima Nikaya 36.
Schmithausen discerns three possible roads to liberation as described in the suttas, to which Vetter adds a fourth possibility, while the attainment of nirodha-samÃÂpatti may constitute a fifth possibility:
According to the Theravada tradition, the meditator uses the jhÃÂna state to bring the mind to rest, and to strengthen and sharpen the mind, in order to investigate the true nature of phenomena (dhamma) and to gain insight into impermanence, suffering and not-self. According to the Theravada-tradition, the arahant is aware that the jhÃÂnas are ultimately unsatisfactory, realizing that the meditative attainments are also anicca, impermanent.
In the (Majjhima Nikaya 36), which narrates the story of the Buddha's awakening, dhyÃÂna is followed by insight into the Four Noble Truths. The mention of the Four Noble Truths as constituting "liberating insight" is probably a later addition. Vetter notes that such insight is not possible in a state of dhyÃÂna, when interpreted as concentration, since discursive thinking is eliminated in such a state. He also notes that the emphasis on "liberating insight" developed only after the four noble truths were introduced as an expression of what this "liberating insight" constituted. In time, other expressions took over this function, such as pratëtyasamutpÃÂda and the emptiness of the self.
This scheme is rejected by some scholars as a later development, since the ÃÂyatanas are akin to non-Buddhist practices, and rejected elsewhere in the canon.
The emphasis on "liberating insight" alone seems to be a later development, in response to developments in Indian religious thought, which saw "liberating insight" as essential to liberation. This may also have been due to an over-literal interpretation by later scholastics of the terminology used by the Buddha, and to the problems involved with the practice of dhyÃÂna, and the need to develop an easier method.
Contemporary scholars have discerned a broader application of jhÃÂna in historical Buddhist practice. Alexander Wynne summarizes this view in stating that the ultimate aim of dhyÃÂna was the attainment of insight, and the application of the meditative state to the practice of mindfulness. According to Frauwallner, mindfulness was a means to prevent the arising of craving, which resulted simply from contact between the senses and their objects, and this may have been the Buddha's original idea. According to Wynne, though, this stress on mindfulness may have led to the intellectualism which favored insight over the practice of dhyÃÂna.
Both Schmithausen and Bronkhorst note that the attainment of insight, which is a cognitive activity, cannot be possible in a state wherein all cognitive activity has ceased. According to Vetter, therefore, the practice of (rupa-)jhÃÂna itself may have constituted the core practice of early Buddhism, with practices such as sila and mindfulness aiding its development. It is the "middle way" between self-mortification, ascribed by Bronkhorst to Jainism, and indulgence in sensual pleasure. Vetter emphasizes that dhyana is a form of non-sensual happiness. The eightfold path can be seen as a path of preparation which leads to the practice of samadhi.
According to some texts, after progressing through the eight jhÃÂnas and the stage of nirodha-samÃÂpatti, a person is liberated. According to some traditions someone attaining the state of nirodha-samÃÂpatti is an anagami or an arahant. In the Anupadda sutra, the Buddha narrates that Sariputta became an arahant upon reaching it.
In the commentarial tradition, the development of jhÃÂna is described as the development of five mental factors (Sanskrit: caitasika; Pali: cetasika) that counteract the five hindrances:
Buddhagosa's considers jhÃÂna to be an exercise in concentration-meditation. His views, together with the Satipatthana Sutta, inspired the development, in the 19th and 20th century, of new meditation techniques which gained a great popularity among lay audiences in the second half of the 20th century.
According to Henepola Gunaratana, the term "jhÃÂna" is closely connected with "samadhi", which is generally rendered as "concentration". The word "samadhi" is almost interchangeable with the word "samatha", serenity. According to Gunaratana, in the widest sense the word samadhi is used for the practices which lead to the development of serenity. In this sense, samadhi and jhÃÂna are close in meaning. Nevertheless, they are not exactly identical, since "certain differences in their suggested and contextual meanings prevent unqualified identification of the two terms." Samadhi signifies only one mental factor, namely one-pointedness, while the word "jhÃÂna" encompasses the whole state of consciousness, "or at least the whole group of mental factors individuating that meditative state as a jhana." Furthermore, according to Gunaratana, samadhi involves "a wider range of reference than jhana", noting that "the Pali exegetical tradition recognizes three levels of samadhi: preliminary concentration (parikammasamadhi) [...] access concentration (upacarasamadhi) [...] and absorption concentration (appanasamadhi)."
According to the PÃÂli canon commentarial tradition, access/neighbourhood concentration (upacÃÂra-samÃÂdhi) is a stage of meditation that the meditator reaches before entering into jhÃÂna. The overcoming of the five hindrances mark the entry into access concentration. Access concentration is not mentioned in the discourses of the Buddha, but there are several suttas where a person gains insight into the Dhamma on hearing a teaching from the Buddha.
According to Tse-fu Kuan, at the state of access concentration, some meditators may experience vivid mental imagery, which is similar to a vivid dream. They are as vivid as if seen by the eye, but in this case the meditator is fully aware and conscious that they are seeing mental images. Tse-fu Kuan grounds this view in the early texts, with further explication to be found in the TheravÃÂda commentaries.
According to Venerable Sujivo, as the concentration becomes stronger, the feelings of breathing and of having a physical body will completely disappear, leaving only pure awareness. At this stage inexperienced meditators may become afraid, thinking that they are going to die if they continue the concentration, because the feeling of breathing and the feeling of having a physical body has completely disappeared. Sujivo explains that this fear is needless and that the practitioner should instead continue concentration, in order to reach "full concentration" (jhÃÂna).
A meditator should first master the lower jhÃÂnas, before they can go into the higher jhÃÂnas. According to Nathan Katz, the early suttas state that "the most exquisite of recluses" is able to attain any of the jhÃÂnas and abide in them without difficulty.
In the doctrine of the contemporary Vipassana movement, the jhÃÂna state cannot by itself lead to enlightenment as it only suppresses the defilements. Meditators must use the jhÃÂna state as an instrument for developing wisdom by cultivating insight, and use it to penetrate the true nature of phenomena through direct cognition, which will lead to cutting off the defilements and nibbana.
According to the later TheravÃÂda commentorial tradition as outlined by Buddhagoá¹£a in his , after coming out of the state of jhÃÂna the meditator will be in the state of post-jhÃÂna access concentration. In this state the investigation and analysis of the true nature of phenomena begins, which leads to insight into the characteristics of impermanence, suffering and not-self arises.
While the jhÃÂnas are often understood as deepening states of concentration, due to its description as such in the Abhidhamma, and the , since the 1980s some academics and contemporary TheravÃÂdins have begun to question both this understanding of the jhÃÂnas as being states of deep absorption, and the idea that they are not necessary for the attainment of liberation. While significant research on this topic has been done by Bareau, Schmithausen, Martin Stuart-Fox, Rod Bucknell, Vetter, Bronkhorst, and Wynne, TheravÃÂda practitioners have also scrutinized and criticised the samatha-vipassana distinction. Reassessments of the description of jhÃÂna in the suttas consider jhÃÂna and vipassana to be an integrated practice, leading to a "tranquil and equanimous awareness of whatever arises in the field of experience."
While the commentarial tradition regards vitarka and vicara as initial and sustained concentration on a meditation object, Roderick S. Bucknell notes that vitarka and vicara may refer to "probably nothing other than the normal process of discursive thought, the familiar but usually unnoticed stream of mental imagery and verbalization." Bucknell further notes that "[t]hese conclusions conflict with the widespread conception of the first jhÃÂna as a state of deep concentration."
According to Stuart-Fox, the Abhidhamma separated vitarka from vicara, and ekaggata (one-pointedness) was added to the description of the first dhyÃÂna to give an equal number of five hindrances and five antidotes. The commentarial tradition regards the qualities of the first dhyÃÂna to be antidotes to the five hindrances, and ekaggata may have been added to the first dhyÃÂna to give exactly five antidotes for the five hindrances. Stuart-Fox further notes that vitarka, being discursive thought, will do very little as an antidote for sloth and torpor, reflecting the inconsistencies which were introduced by the scholastics.
UpekkhÃÂ, equanimity, which is perfected in the fourth dhyÃÂna, is one of the four BrahmÃÂ-vihÃÂra. While the commentarial tradition downplayed the importance of the BrahmÃÂ-vihÃÂra, Gombrich holds that the Buddhist usage of the term BrahmÃÂ-vihÃÂra originally referred to an awakened state of mind, and a concrete attitude toward other beings which was equal to "living with Brahman" here and now. The later tradition, in this interpretation, took those descriptions too literally, linking them to cosmology and understanding them as "living with Brahman" by rebirth in the BrahmÃÂ-world. According to Gombrich, "the Buddha taught that kindnessâÂÂwhat Christians tend to call loveâÂÂwas a way to salvation.
Vetter, Gombrich and Wynne note that the first and second jhÃÂna represent the onset of dhyÃÂna due to withdrawal and right effort c.q. the four right efforts, followed by concentration, whereas the third and fourth jhÃÂna combine concentration with mindfulness. Polak, elaborating on Vetter, notes that the onset of the first dhyÃÂna is described as a quite natural process, due to the preceding efforts to restrain the senses and the nurturing of wholesome states. Regarding samÃÂdhi as the eighth step of the Noble Eightfold Path, Vetter notes that samÃÂdhi consists of the four stages of dhyÃÂna meditation, but
According to Richard Gombrich, the sequence of the four rà «pa jhÃÂnas describes two different cognitive states: "I know this is controversial, but it seems to me that the third and fourth jhÃÂnas are thus quite unlike the second." Gombrich and Wynne note that, while the second jhÃÂna denotes a state of absorption, in their interpretation of the third and fourth jhÃÂna, one comes out of this absorption, being mindfully aware of objects while being indifferent to them. According to Gombrich, "the later tradition has falsified the jhana by classifying them as the quintessence of the concentrated, calming kind of meditation, ignoring the otherâÂÂand indeed higherâÂÂelement. According to Lusthaus, "mindfulness in [the fourth dhyÃÂna] is an alert, relaxed awareness detached from positive and negative conditioning."
Gethin, followed by Polak and Arbel, further notes that there is a "definite affinity" between the four jhÃÂnas and the bojjhaá¹ gÃÂ, the seven factors of awakening. According to Gethin, the early Buddhist texts have "a broadly consistent vision" regarding meditation practice. Various practices lead to the development of the factors of awakening, which are not only the means to, but also the constituents of, awakening. According to Gethin, satipaá¹Âá¹ÂhÃÂna and ÃÂnÃÂpÃÂnasati are related to a formula that summarizes the Buddhist path to awakening as "abandoning the hindrances, establishing [...] mindfulness, and developing the seven factors of awakening." This results in a "heightened awareness", "overcoming distracting and disturbing emotions", which are not particular elements of the path to awakening, but rather common disturbing and distracting emotions. Gethin further states that "the exegetical literature is essentially true to the vision of meditation presented in the Nikayas," applying the "perfect mindfulness, stillness and lucidity" of the jhÃÂnas to the contemplation of "reality", of the way things really are, as temporary and ever-changing. It is in this sense that "the jhana state has the transcendent, transforming quality of awakening."
Alexander Wynne states that the dhyÃÂna-scheme is poorly understood. According to Wynne, words expressing the inculcation of awareness, such as sati, sampajÃÂno, and upekkhÃÂ, are mistranslated or misunderstood as particular factors of meditative states, whereas they refer to a particular way of perceiving the sense objects:
However, this criticism of the traditional TheravÃÂdin interpretation has itself been criticized in return, with other scholars and practitioners holding that the higher jhÃÂnas either cannot involve discursive awareness, orâÂÂat leastâÂÂthat the "Abhidhamma-style" jhÃÂna practice remains a tenable interpretation of the material found in the PÃÂli suttas, and willâÂÂequivalently to the "lighter" jhÃÂna practice recently championed by e.g. WynneâÂÂyet lead to liberating insight.
While TheravÃÂda meditation was introduced to the west as vipassana-meditation, which rejected the usefulness of jhÃÂna, there is a growing interest among western vipassana-practitioners in jhÃÂna. The nature and practice of jhana is a topic of debate and contention among western convert Theravadins, to the extent that the disputes have even been called "the Jhana wars."
The , and the "pioneering popularizing work of Daniel Goleman", has been influential in the (mis)understanding of dhyana being a form of concentration-meditation. The is centered around kasina-meditation, a form of concentration-meditation in which the mind is focused on a (mental) object. According to Thanissaro Bhikkhu, "[t]he text then tries to fit all other meditation methods into the mold of kasina practice, so that they too give rise to countersigns, but even by its own admission, breath meditation does not fit well into the mold." Thanissaro further states that "the Visuddhimagga uses a very different paradigm for concentration from what you find in the Canon." In its emphasis on kasina meditation, the departs from the Pali Canon, in which dhyÃÂna is the central meditative practice, indicating that what "jhÃÂna means in the commentaries is something quite different from what it means in the Canon."
Bhante Henepola Gunaratana contends that "what the suttas say is not the same as what the Visuddhimagga says [...] they are actually different," leading to a divergence between the traditional scholarly understanding and the recent re-examination of descriptions in the suttas. Gunaratana further notes that Buddhaghosa invented several key meditation terms which are not to be found in the suttas, such as "parikamma samadhi (preparatory concentration), upacara samadhi (access concentration), appanasamadhi (absorption concentration)." Gunaratana also notes that Buddhaghosa's emphasis on kasina-meditation is not to be found in the suttas, where dhyÃÂna is always combined with mindfulness.
According to scholar Tilman Vetter, dhyÃÂna as a preparation of discriminating insight must have been different from the dhyÃÂna-practice introduced by the Buddha, using e.g. kasina exercises to produce a "more artificially produced dhyana", resulting in the cessation of apperceptions and feelings. Shankman notes that kasina exercises are propagated in Buddhaghosa's , which is considered the authoritative commentary on meditation practice in the TheravÃÂda tradition, but differs from the PÃÂli canon in its description of jhÃÂna. While the suttas connect samadhi to mindfulness and awareness of the body, for Buddhaghosa jhÃÂna is a purely mental exercise, in which one-pointed concentration leads to a narrowing of attention.
Several western teachers (Thanissaro Bhikkhu, Leigh Brasington, Richard Shankman) make a distinction between "sutta-oriented" jhana and "Visuddhimagga-oriented" jhana, dubbed "minimalists" and "maximalists" by Kenneth Rose.
ṬhÃÂnissaro Bhikkhu, a western teacher in the Thai Forest Tradition, has repeatedly argued that the PÃÂli Canon and the Visuddhimagga give different descriptions of the jhÃÂnas, regarding the Visuddhimagga description to be incorrect. Accordingly, he advises against the development of strong states of concentration. Arbel describes the fourth jhÃÂna as "non-reactive and lucid awareness", not as a state of deep concentration.
According to Richard Shankman, the sutta descriptions of jhÃÂna practice explain that the meditator does not emerge from jhÃÂna to practice vipassana but rather the work of insight is done whilst in jhÃÂna itself. In particular the meditator is instructed to "enter and remain in the fourth jhÃÂna" before commencing the work of insight in order to uproot the mental defilements.
Keren Arbel has conducted extensive research on the jhanas and the contemporary criticisms of the commentarial interpretation. Based on this research, and her own experience as a senior meditation-teacher, she gives a reconstructed account of the original meaning of the dhyÃÂnas. She argues that jhÃÂna is an integrated practice, describing the fourth jhÃÂna as "non-reactive and lucid awareness", not as a state of deep concentration. According to Arbel, it develops "a mind which is not conditioned by habitual reaction-patterns of likes and dislikes [...] a profoundly wise relation to experience, not tainted by any kind of wrong perception and mental reactivity rooted in craving (tanha)."
According to Kenneth Rose, the -oriented "maximalist" approach is a return to ancient Indian "mainstream practices", in which physical and mental immobility was thought to lead to equanimity and liberation from samsara and rebirth. This approach was rejected by the Buddha, turning to a gentler approach which still results in upekkha and sati, equanimous awareness of experience.
MahÃÂyÃÂna Buddhism includes numerous schools of practice. Each draw upon various Buddhist sà «tras, philosophical treatises, and commentaries, and each has its own emphasis, mode of expression, and philosophical outlook. Accordingly, each school has its own meditation methods for the purpose of developing samÃÂdhi and prajñÃÂ, with the goal of ultimately attaining enlightenment.
Both Polak and Arbel suggest that the traditions of Dzogchen, Mahamudra and Chan preserve or resemble dhyana as an open awareness of body and mind, thus transcending the dichotomy between vipassana and samatha.
Anapanasati and dhyÃÂna are a central aspect of Buddhist practice in Chan, necessary for progress on the path and "true entry into the Dharma".
In China, the word dhyÃÂna was originally transliterated with and shortened to just in common usage. The word and the practice of Buddhist meditation entered into Chinese through the translations of An Shigao (fl. c. 148âÂÂ180 CE), and KumÃÂrajëva (334âÂÂ413 CE), who translated DhyÃÂna sutras, which were influential early meditation texts mostly based on the Yogacara meditation teachings of the SarvÃÂstivÃÂda school of Kashmir circa 1stâÂÂ4th centuries CE. The word Chan became the designation for Chan Buddhism (Korean Seon, Vietnamese Thiá»Ân, Japanese Zen).
In Chinese Buddhism, following the Ur-text of the Satipatthana Sutra and the dhyana sutras, dhyÃÂna refers to various kinds of meditation techniques and their preparatory practices, which are necessary to practice dhyana. The five main types of meditation in the Dhyana sutras are anapanasati (mindfulness of breathing); paá¹Âikà «lamanasikÃÂra meditation, mindfulness of the impurities of the body; loving-kindness maitrë meditation; the contemplation on the twelve links of pratëtyasamutpÃÂda; and the contemplation on the Buddha's thirty-two Characteristics.
Downplaying the body-recollections (but maintaining the awareness of imminent death), the early Chan-tradition developed the notions or practices of wu nian ("no thought, no "fixation on thought, such as one's own views, experiences, and knowledge") and fÃÂi sëliàng (, Japanese: hishiryà Â, "nonthinking"); and kanxin ("observing the mind") and shou-i pu i (, "maintaining the one without wavering") turning the attention from the objects of experience, to the nature of mind, the perceiving subject itself, which is equated with Buddha-nature.
During sitting meditation, practitioners usually assume a position such as the lotus position, half-lotus, Burmese, or yoga postures, using the dhyÃÂna mudrÃÂ. To regulate the mind, awareness is directed towards counting or watching the breath or by bringing that awareness to the energy center below the navel (see also ÃÂnÃÂpÃÂnasati). Often, a square or round cushion placed on a padded mat is used to sit on; in some other cases, a chair may be used. This practice may simply be called sitting dhyÃÂna, which is zuòChan () in Chinese, zazen () in Japanese, () in Korean, and ' in Vietnamese.
In the Sà Âtà  school of Zen, meditation with no objects, anchors, or content, is the primary form of practice. The meditator strives to be aware of the stream of thoughts, allowing them to arise and pass away without interference. Considerable textual, philosophical, and phenomenological justification of this practice can be found throughout Dà Âgen's Shà Âbà Âgenzà Â, as for example in the "Principles of Zazen" and the "Universally Recommended Instructions for Zazen". In the Japanese language, this practice is called Shikantaza.
According to Charles Luk, in the earliest traditions of Chan, there was no fixed method or formula for teaching meditation, and all instructions were simply heuristic methods, to point to the true nature of the mind, also known as Buddha-nature. According to Luk, this method is referred to as the "Mind Dharma", and exemplified in the story of à ÂÃÂkyamuni Buddha holding up a flower silently, and MahÃÂkÃÂà Âyapa smiling as he understood. A traditional formula of this is, "Chan points directly to the human mind, to enable people to see their true nature and become buddhas."
At the beginning of the Sòng dynasty, practice with the kà Âan method became popular, whereas others practiced "silent illumination". This became the source of some differences in practice between the LÃÂnjì and Cáodòng schools.
A kà Âan, literally "public case", is a story or dialogue, describing an interaction between a Zen master and a student. These anecdotes give a demonstration of the master's insight. Koans emphasize the non-conceptional insight that the Buddhist teachings are pointing to. Koans can be used to provoke the "great doubt", and test a student's progress in Zen practice.
KÃ Âan-inquiry may be practiced during zazen (sitting meditation), kinhin (walking meditation), and throughout all the activities of daily life. KÃ Âan practice is particularly emphasized by the Japanese Rinzai school, but it also occurs in other schools or branches of Zen depending on the teaching line.
The Zen student's mastery of a given kà Âan is presented to the teacher in a private interview (referred to in Japanese as dokusan (çÂŒÂÂ), daisan (代åÂÂ), or sanzen (Ã¥ÂÂ禠)). While there is no unique answer to a kà Âan, practitioners are expected to demonstrate their understanding of the kà Âan and of Zen through their responses. The teacher may approve or disapprove of the answer and guide the student in the right direction. The interaction with a Zen teacher is central in Zen, but makes Zen practice also vulnerable to misunderstanding and exploitation.
B. Alan Wallace holds that modern Tibetan Buddhism lacks emphasis on achieving levels of concentration higher than access concentration. According to Wallace, one possible explanation for this situation is that virtually all Tibetan Buddhist meditators seek to become enlightened through the use of tantric practices. These require the presence of sense desire and passion in one's consciousness, but jhÃÂna effectively inhibits these phenomena.
While few Tibetan Buddhists, either inside or outside Tibet, devote themselves to the practice of concentration, Tibetan Buddhist literature does provide extensive instructions on it, and great Tibetan meditators of earlier times stressed its importance.
Dhyana is an important ancient practice mentioned in the literature of Hinduism, as well as early texts of Jainism. Dhyana in Buddhism influenced these practices as well as was influenced by them, likely in its origins and its later development.
There are parallels with the fourth to eighth stages of Patanjali's Ashtanga Yoga, as mentioned in his classical work, Yoga Sutras of Patanjali, which were compiled around 400 CE by, taking materials about yoga from older traditions.
Patanjali discerns bahiranga (external) aspects of yoga namely, yama, niyama, asana, pranayama, and the antaranga (internal) yoga. Having actualized the pratyahara stage, a practitioner is able to effectively engage into the practice of Samyama. At the stage of pratyahara, the consciousness of the individual is internalized in order that the sensations from the senses of taste, touch, sight, hearing and smell don't reach their respective centers in the brain and takes the sadhaka (practitioner) to next stages of Yoga, namely Dharana (concentration), Dhyana (meditation), and Samadhi (mystical absorption), being the aim of all Yogic practices.
The Eight Limbs of the yoga sutras show Samadhi as one of its limbs. The Eight limbs of the Yoga Sutra was influenced by Buddhism. Vyasa's Yogabhashya, the commentary to the Yogasutras, and Vacaspati Misra's subcommentary state directly that the samadhi techniques are directly borrowed from the Buddhists' Jhana, with the addition of the mystical and divine interpretations of mental absorption. The Yoga Sutra, especially the fourth segment of Kaivalya Pada, contains several polemical verses critical of Buddhism, particularly the VijñÃÂnavÃÂda school of Vasubandhu.
The suttas show that during the time of the Buddha, Nigantha Nataputta, the Jain leader, did not even believe that it is possible to enter a state where the thoughts and examination stop.