In various Asian religious traditions, the NÃÂgas () are a divine, or semi-divine, race of half-human, half-serpent beings that reside in the netherworld (Patala), and can occasionally take human or part-human form, or are so depicted in art. Furthermore, nÃÂgas are also known as dragons and water spirits. A female nÃÂga is called a Nagini (Hindi: Nagin). According to legend, they are the children of the sage Kashyapa and Kadru. Rituals devoted to these supernatural beings have been taking place throughout South Asia for at least 2,000 years. They are principally depicted in three forms: as entirely human with snakes on the heads and necks, as common serpents, or as half-human, half-snake beings in Hinduism and Buddhism.
Nagaraja is the title given to the king of the nÃÂgas. Narratives of these beings hold cultural significance in the mythological traditions of many South Asian and Southeast Asian cultures, and within Hinduism and Buddhism. Communities such as the Nagavamshi, Khmer and Sri Lankan Tamils claim descent from this race.
In Sanskrit, a () is a snake, most often depicted by the Indian cobra (Naja naja). A synonym for ' is ' (). There are several words for "snake" in general, and one of the very commonly used ones is ' (). Sometimes the word ' is also used generically to mean "snake". The word is cognate with English 'snake', Germanic: *snÃÂk-a-, Proto-IE: *(s)nÃÂg-o- (with s-mobile).
Alternatively, an Indo-European etymology as a "hairless, naked animal"âÂÂcognate to English "naked"âÂÂwould explain that the Sanskrit word nÃÂga can also mean "cloud", "mountain" or "elephant".
NÃÂgas, as a serpent-shaped group of deities that often take form as cobras, are prominent in Hindu iconography, throughout Hindu texts (especially in the first book of the MahÃÂbhÃÂrata) and in local folk traditions of worship. In some regions of the Himalaya, nÃÂgas are regarded as the divine rulers of the region â for example, in Kullu Valley, in Berinag and in the valley of the Pindar River, which is believed to be ruled by the ninefold Naiá¹Âë Devë. Both in the Nilamata Purana of Kashmir and in the Swayambhu Purana of Kathmandu, the respective region begins its history as a lake, populated by nÃÂgas, which is later drained.
Ancient Sanskrit texts such as the Mahabharata, the Ramayana, and the Puranas describe the nÃÂgas as a powerful, splendid and proud semi-divine species that can assume their physical form either as human (often with a halo of cobra hoods behind their head), as a partially human serpent, or as a whole serpent. Their domain is in the enchanted underworld, the underground realm filled with gems, gold and other earthly treasures called Naga-loka or Patala-loka. They are also often associated with bodies of watersâÂÂincluding rivers, lakes, seas, and wellsâÂÂand are guardians of treasure. Their power and venom make them potentially dangerous to humans. However, in Hindu mythology, they often take the role of benevolent protagonists: in the Samudra Manthana, Vasuki, a nagaraja who abides on Shiva's neck, became the churning rope for churning of the Ocean of Milk. Their eternal archrival is the Garuá¸Âa, the legendary semi-divine bird-like deity.
Vishnu is originally portrayed in the form sheltered by SheshanÃÂga or reclining on Shesha, but the iconography has been extended to other deities as well. The serpent is a common feature in Ganesha iconography, and appears in many forms: around the neck, use as a sacred thread (Sanskrit: ') wrapped around the stomach as a belt, held in a hand, coiled at the ankles, or as a throne. Shiva is often shown garlanded with a snake. Maehle (2006: p. 297) states that "Patanjali is thought to be a manifestation of the serpent of eternity".
In South India, termite hills are believed to be the dwelling place of female nagammas, whereas Himalayan Nags and Naginis, such as Naiá¹Âë Devë of Pindar Valley, are worshipped as underworld beings protecting water resources and the wellbeing of village and valley.
The Mahabharata epic is the first text that introduces nÃÂgas; it describes them in detail and narrates their stories. The cosmic snake Shesha, the nagarajas (nÃÂga kings) Vasuki, Takshaka, Airavata and Karkotaka, and the princess Ulupi, are all depicted in the Mahabharata.
The Brahma Purana describes the reign of Adishesha as the king of the serpents in Patala:
The Kamba Ramayana describes the role of Vasuki in the Samudra Manthana:
The Devi Bhagavata Purana describes the legend of Manasa:
As in Hinduism, the Buddhist nÃÂga generally has sometimes been portrayed as a human being with a snake or dragon extending over his head. One nÃÂga, in human form, attempted to become a monk, and when telling it that such ordination was impossible, the Buddha told it how to ensure that it would be reborn a human, and so able to become a monk.
The nÃÂgas are believed to both live on Nagaloka, among the other minor deities and in various parts of the human-inhabited earth. Some of them are water-dwellers, living in streams or the ocean; others are earth-dwellers, living in caverns.
The nÃÂgas are the followers of (PÃÂli: Virà «pakkha), one of the Four Heavenly Kings who guards the western direction. They act as guards upon Mount Sumeru, protecting the dÃÂvas of TrÃÂyastriá¹Âà Âa from attacks by the asuras.
Among the notable nÃÂgas of Buddhist tradition is Mucalinda, nagaraja and protector of the Buddha. In the Vinaya Sutra (I, 3), shortly after his enlightenment, the Buddha is meditating in a forest when a great storm arises, but graciously, King Mucalinda gives shelter to the Buddha from the storm by covering the Buddha's head with his seven snake heads. Then the king takes the form of a young Brahmin and renders the Buddha homage.
In the VajrayÃÂna and MahÃÂsiddha traditions, nÃÂgas in their half-human form are depicted holding a nÃÂgas-jewel, kumbhas of amrita, or a terma that had been elementally encoded by adepts. In Tibetan Buddhism, nÃÂgas are known as klu or klu-mo and they are associated with water and cleanliness, as they live in oceans, rivers, lakes, and springs, and do not want their environments to be disturbed or polluted.
The two chief disciples of the Buddha, Sariputta and MoggallÃÂna are both referred to as MahÃÂnÃÂga or "Great nÃÂga". Some of the most important figures in Buddhist history symbolize nÃÂgas in their names such as DignÃÂga, NÃÂgÃÂsÃÂna, and, although other etymons are assigned to his name, NÃÂgÃÂrjuna.
The NÃÂga Saá¹Âyutta of the Pali Canon consists of suttas specifically devoted to explaining nature of the nÃÂgas.
In the "Devadatta" chapter of the Lotus Sutra, the daughter of the dragon king, an eight year old longnü (é¾Â女, ), after listening to Mañjuà Ârë preach the Lotus Sutra, transforms into a male Bodhisattva and immediately reaches full enlightenment. Some say this tale appears to reinforce the viewpoint prevalent in Mahayana scriptures that a male body is required for Buddhahood, even if a being is so advanced in realization that they can magically transform their body at will and demonstrate the emptiness of the physical form itself. However, many schools of Buddhism and classical, seminal Chinese exegeses interpret the story to repudiate this viewpoint, stating the story demonstrates that women can attain Buddhahood in their current form.
According to tradition, the PrajñapÃÂramita sutras had been given by the Buddha to a great nÃÂga who guarded them in the sea, and were conferred upon NÃÂgÃÂrjuna later.
In Tibetan Buddhist literature, nÃÂgas are portrayed as guardians or owners of submerged treasure, which can be mere wealth or supernatural, "spiritual" treasures.
In Thailand and Java, the nÃÂga is a wealthy underworld deity. For Malay sailors, nÃÂgas are a type of dragon with many heads. In Laos they are beaked water serpents. In Tibet, they are said to be found in waterways and underground locations, and are susceptible to the suffering caused by human carelessness towards the natural environment.
The Naga people were believed to be an ancient tribe and origins of Sri Lanka. According to V. Kanakasabhai, the Oliyar, Parathavar, Maravar, and Eyinar, who were widespread across South India and North-East Sri Lanka, are all Naga tribes. There are references to them in several ancient texts such as Mahavamsa, Manimekalai, and also in other Sanskrit and Pali literature. They are generally represented as a class of superhumans taking the form of serpents who inhabit a subterranean world. Texts such as Manimekalai represent them as persons in human form.
Stories of nÃÂgas (, ) have been part of Khmer society for thousands of years, dating back to the Funan era (). According to reports from two Chinese envoys, Kang Tai and Zhu Ying, the state of Funan was established in the 1st century CE when an Indian prince named Kaundinya I () married a nÃÂga princess named Soma (áÂÂá¼áÂÂáÂÂáÂÂáÂÂáÂÂá áÂÂáÂÂá kon preah chan; "Soma, daughter of the moon god"; Chinese: æ³èÂÂ, æ³å¶ Liuye; "Willow Leaf"). The couple is symbolized in the story of Preah Thong and Neang Neak. As the legend goes, Kaundinya received instruction in a dream to take a magic bow from a temple and defeat Soma, the nÃÂga princess and daughter of the nÃÂga king. During the ensuing battle, they fell in love and later married, establishing the royal lineage of the Funan dynasty. Kaundinya subsequently constructed the capital city of Vyadhapura, and the kingdom became known as Kambujadeà Âa or Cambodia (, ). The love story between Kaundinya and Soma is the foundation for many standard practices in modern-day Khmer culture, including wedding ceremonies and other rituals. The Khmer people regard themselves as descendants of the nÃÂgas and many still believe the nÃÂga exist today, destined to one day return and restore prosperity to their people.
Although wars, nature, and the passage of time destroyed many temples from the Funan era, nÃÂgas can still be seen in ancient temples dating to the Chenla and Angkor eras. For instance, the temple now called "The Coiled NÃÂgas Temple" (, ) was previously named, "Emperor's Wealth Temple" ( ).
In Khmer culture, nÃÂgas symbolize rain, and represent a bridge between the mortal realm () and the realm of devas (Heaven; /). They have the ability to transform into half or fully human and act as protectors against invisible forces, deities, or malicious intentions. Furthermore, Cambodian nÃÂgas possess numerological symbolism based on the number of their heads. Odd-headed nÃÂgas embody masculinity, infinity, timelessness, and immortality, since all odd numbers derives from the number one (á¡). Even-headed nÃÂgas denote femininity, physicality, mortality, temporality, and the Earth. Odd headed nÃÂgas are believed to represent immortality and are carved and used throughout Cambodia.
In Indian origin religions, there are four different nÃÂga races:
All of them have great powers and can set off storms, rain, tempest and create lands from the sea.
In Javanese, Sundanese, and Balinese culture, Indonesia, a nÃÂga is depicted as a crowned, giant, magical serpent, sometimes winged. It is similarly derived from the Shiva-Hinduism tradition, merged with Javanese animism. The nÃÂga in Indonesia mainly derived and influenced by Indic tradition, combined with the native animism tradition of sacred serpents. In Sanskrit, the term nÃÂga literally means snake, but in Java it normally refer to serpent deity, associated with water and fertility. In Borobudur, the nÃÂgas are depicted in their human form, but elsewhere they are depicted in animal shape.
Early depictions of circa-9th-century Central Java closely resembled Indic nÃÂga which was based on imagery of cobras. During this period, nÃÂga-serpents were depicted as giant cobras supporting the waterspout of yoni-lingam. The examples of nÃÂga-sculpture can be found in several Javanese candis, including Prambanan, Sambisari, Ijo, and Jawi. In East Java, the Penataran temple complex contain a Candi NÃÂga, an unusual nÃÂga-temple with its Hindu-Javanese caryatids holding corpulent nÃÂgas aloft.
The later depiction since the 15th century, however, was slightly influenced by Chinese dragon imageryâÂÂalthough unlike its Chinese counterparts, Javanese and Balinese nÃÂgas do not have legs. NÃÂga as the lesser deity of earth and water is prevalent in the Hindu period of Indonesia, before the introduction of Islam.
In Balinese tradition, nÃÂgas are often depicted battling garuá¸Âas. Intricately carved nÃÂgas are found as stairs railings in bridges or stairs, such as those found in Balinese temples, Ubud monkey forest, and Taman Sari in Yogyakarta.
In a wayang theater story, a snake-like god (nÃÂga) named Sanghyang Anantaboga or Antaboga is a guardian deity in the bowels of the earth. nÃÂgas symbolize the nether realm of earth or underworld.
The NÃÂga () is believed to live in the Laotian stretch of the Mekong or its estuaries. Lao mythology maintains that the nÃÂgas are the protectors of Vientiane, and by extension, the Lao state. The association with nÃÂgas was most clearly articulated during and immediately after the reign of Anouvong. An important poem from this period San Leupphasun () discusses relations between Laos and Thailand in a veiled manner, using the NÃÂga and the Garuá¸Âa to represent the Lao and the Thai, respectively. The NÃÂga is incorporated extensively into Lao iconography, and features prominently in Lao culture throughout the length of the country, not only in Vientiane.
Phaya Nak or Phaya NÃÂga (; ; , phaya derived from Mon which mean high nobility) or Nakkharat (; ) in Thai beliefs, nÃÂgas are considered the patrons of water. NÃÂgas are believed to live in either water bodies or in caves. According to a popular legend, the Mekong River in north-eastern Thailand and Laos was said to be created by two NÃÂga kings slithering through the area, thus creating the Mekong and the nearby Nan River. The Mekong is synonymous with the unexplained fireballs phenomenon which has long been believed to be created by the nÃÂgas that dwell in the river. Common explanations of their sightings have been attributed to oarfish, elongated fish with red crests; however, these are exclusively marine and usually live at great depths.
In November 2022, the Thai government declared the nÃÂga as the national symbol of Thailand, with the aim of promoting Thai culture and traditions and increasing the country's cultural capital to drive the creative economy. The nÃÂga is a mythical creature with long-standing beliefs and connections to the Thai people, and its designation as a national symbol is a significant step towards preserving and promoting Thai culture. The National Culture Commission and the Fine Arts Department developed a prototype image of the nÃÂga that accurately represents Thai beliefs and traditions related to the creature. The prototype image features the four families of nÃÂgas, each with its unique color, and the largest nÃÂga, Nak Vasuki (), who is related to Buddhism and the Thai monarchy, The nÃÂga is also believed to be a symbol of water and fertility and serves as a guardian of Buddhism.
Due to the strong relation with everything water, the NÃÂga in Thai belief also plays a role in rain control. The concept of Nak hai nam (; lit. NÃÂga granting water) is used for annual rainfall prediction. It is still practiced nowadays, most notably during the Royal Ploughing Ceremony. The oracle ranges from 1 nak hai nam (1 NÃÂga granted water); meaning that abundant rainfall should be observed that year, to maximum 7 nak hai nam (7 nagas granted water); meaning there might not be adequate rainfall that year.
In northern Thailand, the Singhanavati Kingdom had a strong connection with nÃÂgas. The kingdom was believed to be built with aids of nÃÂgas, and thus, nÃÂgas were highly revered by the royal family. The kingdom, for a period of time, was renamed Yonok NÃÂga RÃÂj (lit. Yonok the nagaraja)
The nÃÂgas are also highly revered. The Buddhist temples and palaces are often adorned with various nÃÂgas. The term NÃÂga is also present in various Thai architecture terms including the nak sadung (à ¸Âà ¸²à ¸Âà ¸ªà ¸°à ¸Âà ¸¸à ¹Âà ¸Â, the outer roof finial component featuring NÃÂga-like structure), and the nak than (à ¸Âà ¸²à ¸Âà ¸Âà ¸±à ¸Âà ¸Âà ¹Â, the corbel with NÃÂga-shape). Moreover, nÃÂgas are sometimes linked to medicine. The nÃÂga Vasuki is present in the legend of the Samudra Manthana, in which Dhanvantari (god of Ayurveda) and amrita (the elixir of eternal life) were churned from the Ocean of Milk. The nÃÂgas can also be founded substituting the snakes in either Rod of Asclepius or mistakenly Caduceus of several medical institutions' symbols. The former seal of Faculty of Medicine, Srinakharinwirot University, and the seal of Society of Medical Student Thailand are some notable examples using the Caduceus with nagas' presence instead of snakes.
Thai folklore holds the Phaya nÃÂgas to be demi-god creatures, which possess supernatural powers as has been described in Buddhist and Hindu cosmology. The "Kamchanod Forest" (à ¸Âà ¹Âà ¸²à ¸Âà ¸³à ¸Âà ¸°à ¹Âà ¸Âà ¸Â; ) Ban Dung district, Udon Thani province, which is held in high reverence and fear across Thailand, is believed to be the crossroads between the human world and the netherworld, and is frequently depicted in Thai folklore as the site of many hauntings, but more frequently is considered to be the home of the nÃÂga.
According to Shan folklore of Nánzhào Kingdom (now southern China and Southeast Asia during the 8th and 9th centuries, which was centered on present-day Yúnnán in China), the nÃÂga inhabited the ÃÂrhÃÂi lake and is the creator of the Mekong. In China, the nÃÂga (Chinese: é£伽) is generally more considered to be a dragon.
Many people, particularly in Isan (the north-eastern region of Thailand), believe that the nÃÂgas are responsible for unnatural wave phenomena occurring in the rivers or lakes in the vicinity. It is also frequently claimed that the serpent-like demigods are responsible for marks on common objects, such as car hoods or house walls.
A police officer has also claimed to be in contact with the nÃÂga, although the implications of this contact is not thoroughly explained.
In attempts to explain these phenomena, scientists and researchers at the Faculty of Science of Chulalongkorn University have attributed these seemingly preternatural phenomena to standing waves in water, and posit that the existence of the Phaya NÃÂga is similar to belief in Loch Ness Monster in Scotland or Ogopogo in Canada, and further maintain that the serpent-like tracks of the Phaya NÃÂga are very possibly forged by humans.
In Malay and Orang Asli traditions, the lake Chini, located in Pahang is home to a nÃÂga called Sri Gumum. Depending on legend versions, her predecessor Sri Pahang or her son left the lake and later fought a nÃÂga called Sri Kemboja. Kemboja is the Malay name for Cambodia. Like the nÃÂga-legends there, there are stories about an ancient empire in lake Chini, although the stories are not linked to the nÃÂga-legends.
The indigenous Bakunawa, a serpent-like moon-eating creature in Philippine mythology, was syncretized with the nÃÂga. It is believed to be the cause of eclipses, earthquakes, rains, and wind. The movements of the bakunawa served as a geomantic calendar system for ancient Filipinos and were part of the shamanistic rituals of the babaylan. It is usually depicted with a characteristically looped tail and was variously believed to inhabit either the sea, the sky, or the underworld. However, the bakunawa may have also syncretized with the Hindu deities, Rahu and Ketu, the navagraha of eclipses.