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Ground spider

Ground spiders comprise Gnaphosidae, the seventh largest spider family with about 2,500 described species in over 100 genera distributed worldwide. There are 105 species known to central Europe, and common genera include Gnaphosa, Drassodes, Micaria, Cesonia, Zelotes and many others. They are closely related to Clubionidae. At present, no ground spiders are known to be seriously venomous to humans.

Hunting behavior

Ground spiders hunt by active foraging, chasing down and subduing individual prey items. They are adapted to hunting large and potentially dangerous prey, including other spiders, which they subdue by using their silk. When hunting, ground spiders produce thick, gluey silk from their enlarged spinnerets and attempt to use it to entangle their prey in swathing attacks, often applying their webbing to their prey's legs and mouths. By immobilizing potential prey in this manner, ground spiders can subdue proportionally large creatures while reducing risk of injury to themselves from their prey's attempts to fight back.

Description

Generally, ground spiders are characterized by having barrel-shaped anterior spinnerets that are one spinneret diameter apart. The main exception to this rule is found in the ant-mimicking genus Micaria. Another characteristic is an indentation in the endites (paired mouthparts anterior and lateral to the labium, or lip). All ground spiders lack a prey-capture web and generally run prey down on the surface. They hunt at night and spend the day in a silken retreat.

The genitalia are diverse and are a good model for studying the evolution of genitalia because of their peculiar copulatory mechanism. The thick-walled egg sacs are guarded by the mother until the spiderlings hatch.

Genera

, this family includes 154 genera and 2,498 species:

  • Afrodrassex <small> & , 2022</small> – Angola, South Africa
  • Algarvezelotes <small>Wunderlich, 2023</small> – Portugal
  • Allomicythus <small>Ono, 2009</small> – China, Vietnam
  • Allozelotes <small>Yin & Peng, 1998</small> – China
  • Almafuerte <small>Grismado & Carrión, 2017</small> – Argentina, Bolivia, Uruguay
  • Amazoromus <small>Brescovit & Höfer, 1994</small> – Brazil
  • Ammoxenus <small>Simon, 1893</small> – Southern Africa
  • Amusia <small>Tullgren, 1910</small> – South Africa, East Africa
  • Anagraphis <small>Simon, 1893</small> – Ethiopia, Libya, Asia, Russia, Southern Europe, East Africa
  • Anagrina <small>Berland, 1920</small> – Kenya, Niger
  • Aneplasa <small>, 1923</small> – Angola, South Africa, East Africa
  • Anzacia <small>Dalmas, 1919</small> – Oceania
  • Aphantaulax <small>Simon, 1878</small> – Africa, Asia, Russia, France, Australia, North Africa, São Tomé and Príncipe
  • Apodrassodes <small>Vellard, 1924</small> – Costa Rica, Guatemala, Mexico, South America
  • Apodrassus <small>Chamberlin, 1916</small> – Peru
  • Aponetius <small>Kamura, 2020</small> – Japan
  • Apopyllus <small>Platnick & , 1984</small> – Bonaire, Curaçao, Mexico, South America
  • Arauchemus <small>Ott & Brescovit, 2012</small> – Brazil
  • Asemesthes <small>Simon, 1887</small> – Angola, Ethiopia, Southern Africa
  • Asiabadus <small>Roewer, 1961</small> – Central Asia
  • Australoechemus <small>Schmidt & Piepho, 1994</small> – Cape Verde, Ascension Is
  • Austrammo <small>Platnick, 2002</small> – Australia
  • Avstroneulanda <small>Zakharov & Ovtsharenko, 2022</small> – Australia, Papua New Guinea
  • Barrowammo <small>Platnick, 2002</small> – Australia
  • Benoitodes <small>Platnick, 1993</small> – St. Helena
  • Berinda <small>Roewer, 1928</small> – Tanzania, Egypt, Western Asia, Cyprus, Greece. Introduced to Japan
  • Berlandina <small>Dalmas, 1922</small> – Africa, Asia, Alps, Mediterranean to Central Asia
  • Cabanadrassus <small>Mello-Leitão, 1941</small> – Argentina
  • Callilepis <small>Westring, 1874</small> – Asia, Europe, Mexico, North America
  • Callipelis <small>Zamani & Marusik, 2017</small> – Iran
  • Camillina <small>Berland, 1919</small> – Africa, Italy, North America, South America. Introduced to Malaysia
  • Canariognapha <small>Wunderlich, 2011</small> – Canary Islands
  • Ceryerda <small>Simon, 1909</small> – Australia
  • Cesonia <small>Simon, 1893</small> – Turkey, Cyprus, Greece, North America, Azerbaijan, Bahama Is, Dominican Rep, Nevis, St, St. Kitts, Vincent, Virgin Is
  • Chatzakia <small>Lissner & Bosmans, 2016</small> – Spain
  • Civizelotes <small>Senglet, 2012</small> – Morocco, Asia, Europe
  • Cladothela <small>Kishida, 1928</small> – China, Japan, Korea
  • Coillina <small>Yin & Peng, 1998</small> – China, Myanmar, India
  • Coreodrassus <small>Paik, 1984</small> – Asia
  • Cryptodrassus <small>Miller, 1943</small> – Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, Asia, Russia, Southern Europe
  • Cryptoerithus <small>Rainbow, 1915</small> – Australia
  • Cubanopyllus <small>Alayón & Platnick, 1993</small> – Cuba
  • Dai <small>Liu & Zhang, 2024</small> – China
  • Diaphractus <small>Purcell, 1907</small> – Southern Africa, East Africa
  • Drassodes <small>Westring, 1851</small> – Africa, Asia, Europe, North America, Brazil, Chile, Peru
  • Drassodex <small>Murphy, 2007</small> – Turkey, Germany, Switzerland, Italy, Spain, France
  • Drassyllus <small>Chamberlin, 1922</small> – Asia, Mexico, North America, Europe
  • Echemella <small>Strand, 1906</small> – DR Congo, Ethiopia
  • Echemographis <small>Caporiacco, 1955</small> – Venezuela
  • Echemoides <small>Mello-Leitão, 1938</small> – South America
  • Echemus <small>Simon, 1878</small> – Africa, Asia, southern Europe, Australia
  • Eilica <small>Keyserling, 1891</small> – South Africa, Zimbabwe, India, Cuba, Jamaica, Panama, Australia, South America, USA to Honduras
  • Encoptarthria <small>Main, 1954</small> – Australia
  • Epicharitus <small>Rainbow, 1916</small> – Australia
  • Fedotovia <small>Charitonov, 1946</small> – Afghanistan, Mongolia, Iran
  • Gaviphosa <small>Sankaran, 2021</small> – India
  • Gertschosa <small>Platnick & Shadab, 1981</small> – Jamaica, Panama, Mexico, United States
  • Gnaphosa <small>Latreille, 1804</small> – North Africa, Europe, North America, Asia, Central America
  • Haplodrassus <small>Chamberlin, 1922</small> – Africa, Asia, Europe, North America
  • Herpyllus <small>Hentz, 1832</small> – Afghanistan, Turkmenistan, Korea, Mexico, North America, Argentina
  • Heser <small>Tuneva, 2004</small> – Algeria, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, India, Mediterranean. Introduced to Burkina Faso, Mexico, United States
  • Hitobia <small>Kamura, 1992</small> – Asia
  • Homoeothele <small>Simon, 1908</small> – Australia
  • Hongkongia <small>Song & Zhu, 1998</small> – Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, China, Japan, Taiwan, Indonesia, Philippines, India
  • Hotwheels <small>Liu & Zhang, 2024</small> – China
  • Hypodrassodes <small>Dalmas, 1919</small> – Australia, New Caledonia, New Zealand
  • Ibala <small>, 2009</small> – Mozambique, Southern Africa
  • Intruda <small>Forster, 1979</small> – Australia. Introduced to New Zealand
  • Iranotricha <small>Zamani & Marusik, 2018</small> – Iran
  • Kaitawa <small>Forster, 1979</small> – New Zealand
  • Kikongo <small>Rodrigues & Rheims, 2020</small> – Kenya, D.R. Congo
  • Kishidaia <small>Yaginuma, 1960</small> – Asia, Russia, Italy
  • Kituba <small>Rodrigues & Rheims, 2020</small> – D.R. Congo
  • Ladissa <small>Simon, 1907</small> – Benin, Sierra Leone, Pakistan
  • Laronius <small>Platnick & Deeleman-Reinhold, 2001</small> – China, Indonesia, Thailand
  • Lasophorus <small>Chatzaki, 2018</small> – Turkey, Cyprus, Greece
  • Latica <small>Silva, Guerrero, Bidegaray-Batista & Simó, 2020</small> – Argentina, Uruguay
  • Latonigena <small>Simon, 1893</small> – South America
  • Leptodrassex <small>Murphy, 2007</small> – Mozambique, Algeria, Libya, South Africa, Lebanon, Portugal, Spain, France
  • Leptodrassus <small>Simon, 1878</small> – Ethiopia, Algeria, Libya, Tunisia, South Africa, Sierra Leone, Israel, Azores, Canary Islands, Southern Europe, Mexico
  • Leptopilos <small>, 2009</small> – Africa, Asia, Bulgaria, Ukraine, Russia, Greece
  • Litopyllus <small>Chamberlin, 1922</small> – Bahamas, Cuba, Mexico, United States
  • Macarophaeus <small>Wunderlich, 2011</small> – Canary Islands, Madeira
  • Marinarozelotes <small>Ponomarev, 2020</small> – Ethiopia, Algeria, Egypt, Asia, Europe. Introduced to South Africa, Senegal, St. Helena, Hawaii, Mexico, United States, Samoa, South America, Ascension Is
  • Marjanus <small>Chatzaki, 2018</small> – China, Iran, Turkey, Greece
  • Marusik <small>Lin & Li, 2023</small> – Vietnam
  • Matua <small>Forster, 1979</small> – New Zealand
  • Megamyrmaekion <small>Reuss, 1834</small> – Africa, India, Iran, Israel, Australia
  • Meizhelan <small>Lin & Li, 2023</small> – China
  • Micaria <small>Westring, 1851</small> – Africa, Asia, Europe, North America, Australia
  • Microdrassus <small>Dalmas, 1919</small> – Seychelles
  • Microsa <small>Platnick & Shadab, 1977</small> – Cuba, Bahama Is, Virgin Is
  • Micythus <small>Thorell, 1897</small> – China, Indonesia, Myanmar, Thailand
  • Minosia <small>Dalmas, 1921</small> – Africa, Kazakhstan, Turkmenistan, Western Asia, Spain, France
  • Minosiella <small>Dalmas, 1921</small> – Somalia, Northern Africa, Afghanistan, Western Asia, Greece
  • Molycria <small>Simon, 1887</small> – Australia
  • Montebello <small>Hogg, 1914</small> – Australia
  • Myandra <small>Simon, 1887</small> – Australia
  • Nauhea <small>Forster, 1979</small> – New Zealand
  • Neodrassex <small>Ott, 2012</small> – Argentina, Brazil
  • Nodocion <small>Chamberlin, 1922</small> – Canada, Mexico, United States
  • Nomindra <small>Platnick & Baehr, 2006</small> – Australia, Southern Australia
  • Nomisia <small>Dalmas, 1921</small> – Africa, Asia, Europe, Mediterranean, Middle East
  • Notiodrassus <small>Bryant, 1935</small> – New Zealand
  • Odontodrassus <small>, 1965</small> – Egypt, South Africa, Ivory Coast, Asia, Russia, New Caledonia, North Africa, Salomon Is. Introduced to Seychelles, Jamaica, Pacific Is
  • Orodrassus <small>Chamberlin, 1922</small> – Canada, United States
  • Parabonna <small>Mello-Leitão, 1947</small> – Brazil
  • Parasyrisca <small>Schenkel, 1963</small> – Asia, Hungary, Ukraine, Russia, North America
  • Phaeocedus <small>Simon, 1893</small> – Asia, Russia, Southern Europe, France
  • Platnickus <small>Liu & Zhang, 2023</small> – China
  • Poecilochroa <small>Westring, 1874</small> – Africa, Korea, Indonesia, Philippines, India, Canary Islands, Italy, Portugal, Spain, France, French Polynesia, Brazil, Galapagos, Peru, Europe to Central Asia, São Tomé and Príncipe
  • Pseudodrassus <small>Caporiacco, 1935</small> – Libya, China, Turkey
  • Pterotricha <small>Kulczyński, 1903</small> – Africa, Asia, Russia, Southern Europe
  • Pterotrichina <small>Dalmas, 1921</small> – Northern Africa, Pakistan, Malta
  • Rastellus <small>Platnick & Griffin, 1990</small> – Southern Africa
  • Sanitubius <small>Kamura, 2001</small> – China, Japan, Korea
  • Scopoides <small>Platnick, 1989</small> – Mexico, United States
  • Scotocesonia <small>Caporiacco, 1947</small> – Guyana
  • Scotognapha <small>Dalmas, 1920</small> – Canary Islands, Savage Is
  • Scotophaeus <small>Simon, 1893</small> – Africa, Asia, Europe, New Zealand, Argentina, East Africa, Salvages. Introduced to Hawaii, Peru
  • Sergiolus <small>Simon, 1892</small> – China, Japan, Korea, North America
  • Sernokorba <small>Kamura, 1992</small> – China, Japan, Korea, Hungary, Bulgaria, Russia, Spain, France
  • Setaphis <small>Simon, 1893</small> – Africa, Asia, Canary Islands, Southern Europe
  • Shaitan <small>Kovblyuk, Kastrygina & Marusik, 2013</small> – Kazakhstan, Azerbaijan, Iran, Russia
  • Shiragaia <small>Paik, 1992</small> – Korea
  • Sidydrassus <small>Esyunin & Tuneva, 2002</small> – Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia, Azerbaijan, Iran, Russia
  • Smionia <small>Dalmas, 1920</small> – Mozambique, Botswana, South Africa, Cape Verde
  • Solitudes <small>Lin & Li, 2020</small> – China
  • Sorkinius <small>Sherwood, , Cazanove & Derepas, 2025</small> – Eastern Africa, South Africa, Yemen
  • Sosticus <small>Chamberlin, 1922</small> – Kazakhstan, China, Caucasus, Iran, Russia, Canada, United States
  • Symphanodes <small>Rainbow, 1916</small> – Australia
  • Synaphosus <small>Platnick & Shadab, 1980</small> – Africa, Asia, Europe, United States. Introduced to Cape Verde, Mexico, Ascension Island
  • Talanites <small>Simon, 1893</small> – Egypt, Tunisia, Asia, Ukraine, Russia, Cyprus, Mexico, United States
  • Talanitoides <small>Levy, 2009</small> – Israel
  • Titus <small>O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1901</small> – Zimbabwe
  • Trachyzelotes <small>Lohmander, 1944</small> – Caucasus, Iran, Turkey
  • Trephopoda <small>Tucker, 1923</small> – Botswana, Namibia, South Africa
  • Trichothyse <small>Tucker, 1923</small> – Africa, Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, India, Iran, Israel, Turkey, Europe, Portugal to Turkmenistan. Introduced to Cape Verde
  • Turkozelotes <small>Kovblyuk & Seyyar, 2009</small> – Morocco, Kazakhstan, Western Asia, Europe
  • Urozelotes <small>Mello-Leitão, 1938</small> – Zambia, India, Russia, Italy, Portugal, France. Introduced to Australia, both Americas, tropical Africa
  • Verita <small>Ramírez & Grismado, 2016</small> – Argentina
  • Wesmaldra <small>Platnick & Baehr, 2006</small> – Australia
  • Wydundra <small>Platnick & Baehr, 2006</small> – Australia, Indonesia, Malaysia
  • Xerophaeus <small>Purcell, 1907</small> – Africa, Yemen
  • Xizangiana <small>Sherwood, Li & Zhang, 2022</small> – China, India
  • Yoruba <small>Rodrigues & Rheims, 2020</small> – Ivory Coast, Nigeria
  • Yuqilin <small>Lin & Li, 2023</small> – China
  • Zagrotes <small>Zamani, Chatzaki, Esyunin & Marusik, 2021</small> – Iran
  • Zelanda <small>Özdikmen, 2009</small> – New Zealand
  • Zelominor <small>Snazell & Murphy, 1997</small> – Algeria, Portugal, Spain
  • Zelotes <small>Gistel, 1848</small> – Africa, Asia, Europe, North America to South America
  • Zelotibia <small>Russell-Smith & Murphy, 2005</small> – Congo, Eastern Africa
  • Zelowan <small>Murphy & Russell-Smith, 2010</small> – Congo, Burundi, Namibia
  • Zimiromus <small>Banks, 1914</small> – Jamaica, Trinidad, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Panama, Mexico, South America, Bahama Is, Virgin Is

References

  • (1983): A revision of the American spiders of the genus Zelotes (Araneae, Gnaphosidae). Bulletin of the AMNH 174: 99-191. PDF (29Mb) - Abstract

External links