The Tarsie del coro di Santa Maria Maggiore are a significant collection of wooden inlays, crafted between 1524 and 1532 primarily by Giovan Francesco Capoferri, with designs predominantly by Lorenzo Lotto, alongside contributions from other artists. They are in the Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore in Bergamo.
At the beginning of the 16th century, the Chiesa di Santa Maria Maggiore retained its Gothic style, devoid of the stucco work and marble columns that would embellish it in the 17th century. The vast nave was lit solely by biforate and triforate windows opening from the upper matroneum of the . The apse, illuminated by three windows smaller than the five added in later centuries, had frescoes by Pecino da Nova depicting scenes from the "Life of Mary", as well as works by Michele da Ronco, with a large depiction of the Great Flood adorning the upper band.
The main altar housed a statue of the Madonna deemed inadequate for the grandeur of the new basilica. Consequently, a silver statue was commissioned, though never completed; and in the interim, a choir befitting the anticipated statue was ordered, as the existing choir was considered modest:<blockquote>Item quia maxima fit impesa et honorifica i fabricatione unius icone ad altare maius ecclesie d. S. Marie Maioris Bergomi ad maximu dei cultuam et civitatis nosrte ornamentus existatque corus non conveniuns tanto apparatui</blockquote>Thus, the presbytery was enriched with a choir described as: "A beautiful and praiseworthy choir, presbytery, benches, and ornaments". The choir and its inlays were intended to guide the faithful toward deeper spiritual and intellectual reflection.
On March 12, 1524, Lorenzo Lotto and the overseers of the formalized an agreement for the creation of designs for the choir's inlays in the Marian basilica.
Among the overseers was , nephew of Ambrogio Calepio, with Giacomo Grumelli serving as president.
Detailed documentation of the Santa Maria Maggiore inlays exists, drawn from archival records and Lotto's own correspondence.. The project centered on Giovan Francesco Capoferri, a young and skilled inlayer from Lovere, who, on October 23, 1522, was tasked with constructing a new choir for Santa Maria Maggiore, the city's civic church. The Misericordia Consortium oversaw the work, opting to inlay the front seats of the choirâÂÂreserved for the clergyâÂÂwhile leaving the lay seats behind the altar undecorated. Four larger inlays were also planned for the ends of the seats facing the nave. Capoferri had honed his craftâÂÂpreparing, working, and staining wood for inlaysâÂÂunder Fra Damiano da Bergamo during the creation of the choir for the . Fra Damiano Zambelli felt slighted for not being chosen for the project, despite his familiarity with Lotto and Capoferri, his pupil. In 1526, while both Lotto and Capoferri were in Venice, Lotto distanced himself from the city, writing to the congregation:<blockquote>[...] Thus, you are all indebted to me, especially Master Giovan Francesco, your inlayer, whom I greet and commend, and tell him that I have written to him several times without receiving a reply; for this, I still love and honor his virtue in absence, as it is my Christian nature and religion to do so, and whoever errs does so to his own detriment. He knows well that for his honor and benefit, I have acted as a brother, enduring the insults of the ignorant, irreligious Fra Damiano; for this reason, I chose to lodge where I am, at greater expense than elsewhere, so that his malicious nature and judgment might be known and seen. Yet I do not seek to reproach Master Giovan Francesco or demand any recompense from him beyond common friendship [...]|L. Chiodi, "Lettere inedite di Lorenzo Lotto," 1968</blockquote>The architectural design was executed by Bernardo Zenale, while Giovanni Belli of Ponteranica, a carpenter, assisted Capoferri. Initially, the commission cautiously assigned the preparatory cartoons to multiple artists, with Lotto providing one for an . The first seven cartoons were also to be produced by Nicolino di Bartolomeo Cabrini, a little-known local artist, who died in 1524 from a severe head injury sustained in an accident, despite treatment by the surgeon . Subsequently, in March 1524, the overseers contracted Lotto for all remaining inlays, agreeing to a payment of 9 lire for narrative scenes and 1 lira 14 soldi for covers, regardless of size
Lotto's designs, or invenzioni, for the inlays accounted for the natural light, employing chiaroscuro techniques in the cartoons. He deemed the presbytery's lighting insufficient and factored in the 14 small oculi in the central dome. By 1524, Lotto had delivered nine cartoons for figured inlays, eight for covers, and two for the sides of chair pedestals, which Capoferri translated with fidelity and skill. In 1525, Lotto supplied seven more cartoons (one large), four cover designs, and two additional seat-side designs. Occasionally, he returned to refine the inlays' final outlining
Disputes over payment soon arose between Lotto and the Consortium, as the artist found his compensation inadequate. When his request for an increase was denied, he ceased outlining the inlays. The conflict persisted beyond his departure for Venice in December 1525, likely influencing his decision never to return to Bergamo to avoid unpaid work.
Distance complicated but did not halt the delivery of designs: epistolary instructions flowed between artist and patrons as Lotto completed the series until 1532, when collaboration ended, leaving eight cartoons unfinished. The extensive correspondence (1524âÂÂ1532) reveals a deteriorating relationship, with Lotto repeatedlyâÂÂand unsuccessfullyâÂÂrequesting payment and the return of his cartoons, fearing unauthorized use.
Unbeknownst to Lotto, the original plan was altered, with covers mounted as decorations on the lay stalls, disrupting the intended iconographic program for purely decorative purposes. In July 1530, the choir and stalls began installation in the presbytery of the basilica, with Lotto sending his final six imprese designs in January of the following year.
Capoferri died in 1534 at age 47, having completed his work on Lotto's designs. Relations between the two had soured, leaving Capoferri's family in financial hardship, reliant on public charity. In the cover for Giuseppe venduto dai fratelli, Lotto included a self-portrait alongside Capoferri's, symbolizing their once-eternal friendship, which time proved otherwise.
Between 1554 and 1555, Capoferri's sons, Zinino and Alfonso, completed the grand Bergamo choir, adding the lay section. Lorenzo Lotto died in Loreto, where he had settled in 1556, never seeing his work finishedâÂÂa project spanning fifty years, finalized between 1572 and 1573. It was proudly displayed by the Fondazione MIA mayors during the 1575 pastoral visit of Saint Charles Borromeo.
The definitive study of the Capoferri and Lotto inlays is 's 1987 monograph. The imprese imagery resists immediate interpretation, preserving a mystery that invites diverse readings. This enigmatic quality aligns with the mystery of creation and divinity, posing questions with multiple potential answers. While rooted in Lotto's historical context, the depictions transcend their time, defying temporal logic.
Despite his reluctance, Lotto faced severe financial straits by August 1550, resorting to a lottery sale of some works and preparatory inlay drawings.
In 2023, the inlays, covers, and entire choir underwent a significant cleaning and restoration, restoring their original brilliance. The process was conducted live, allowing numerous visitors to observe each phase.
The 2023 restoration, coinciding with Bergamo and Brescia's designation as Capitals of Culture, revitalized the inlays and covers, reclaiming their original color and luster. An earlier restoration in the 19th century, led by Luciano Gritti's workshop under Stefano Marziali's scientific direction, preceded this effort. The year-and-a-half-long recovery drew many tourists and students.
Among the choir's inlays is one at the left entrance, titled by Lotto as ', depicting Nosce te ipsum.
The choir comprises multiple stalls divided into two sections: one for the clergy near the main altar and another for the laity in the rectangular presbytery closer to the nave.
The choir is enclosed within a wooden barrier, open at the center and crowned by a large arch, allowing the faithful to follow liturgical services. Inside, it has twenty-six stalls reserved for the chapter. Three steps lead to the altar, flanked by two large benches, each with three stallsâÂÂhistorically assigned to the presbyters on the left and Venetian rectors on the right. Beyond these are seventeen stalls for prominent citizens, typically deputies of the Minor Council or regents of the Misericordia Maggiore Congregation. This layout reflects the church's lay character: the bishop, when not officiating, was not permitted to sit centrally but took a lateral position, as the rectors sought autonomy from ecclesiastical authority.
Though the inlays' creator was granted considerable ideological freedom, a theological consultant, the Franciscan Girolamo Terzi, was appointed to refine the chosen Old Testament themes. Terzi received his first payment for this role on May 2, 1523.
From 1526 to 1531, while preparing the cartoons or biblical invenzioni, Lorenzo Lotto resided in Venice, attending public philosophical and theological debates by prominent preachers at the Basilica dei Santi Giovanni e Paolo. These orations, later posted on the church portals for public access, significantly influenced his work. In Venice, he engaged with the biblical scholar Friar Ludovico Martini and the renowned preacher Damiano Loro, likely discussing the biblical themes he was to depict as "stories." These sermons inspired Lotto to write to the Consortium about the episode of Joshua Stopping the Sun. According to historian Cortesi Bosco, Lotto possessed religious knowledge surpassing common understanding.
On June 16, 1524, impressed by the work's growing quality and anticipating wear over time, the consortium requested protective covers for the inlaysâÂÂmovable lids, "picture a claro et obscuro," designed in monochrome, unlike the polychrome main panels. These covers were to feature symbols and allusions to the underlying scenes. On September 16, 1527, Lotto requested additional imprese options to select the most fitting ones: "And regarding the imprese, let them be sent to me in greater rather than fewer numbers, so I may choose those most suitable for a given subject".
Lotto termed these imprese, noting their often elusive meaning. On February 10, 1528, he wrote:
Lotto was a close friend of Giovanmaria Rota, son of Francesco and a counselor of the Misericordia Congregation, who had studied alchemy with leading alchemists of the era. Rota likely imparted the hermetic-alchemical knowledge essential for crafting the covers.
The creation of the inlay covers stands as a unique case in art history, exemplifying spiritual reflection intended to guide viewers through a contemplative journey to the biblical narratives beneath. Lotto's profound and hypnotic exploration owed much to Giovan Battista Suardi, a nobleman, poet, and art enthusiast fluent in LatinâÂÂan area where Lotto was deficient. In 1524, Suardi commissioned frescoes for the Suardi Chapel, forging a close bond with Lotto. Highly regarded by the congregation's mayorsâÂÂhaving once served as presidentâÂÂSuardi contributed the Latin mottos for three inlays. The alchemical-spiritual metaphors suggest a broader circle of intellectually engaged individuals understood these designs. On August 20 of that year, Lotto and Suardi delivered designs for two covers at the entrance to the Clergy Choir. The clergy recognized the deep alchemical-spiritual metaphors, which, though obscure to casual observers, resonated with the basilica's well-educated priests. Bergamo's bishop was Pietro Lippomano, and Lotto had met Giovanni Aurelio Augurelli in 1503, who dedicated his book Geronticon to the future bishopâÂÂevidence of the intellectual milieu surrounding Lotto and Bergamo.
The covers form a meditative itinerary, serving as a "theater of memory" for 16th-century Venetian humanistic knowledge.
Lotto viewed art as a means to comprehend creation and faith, akin to alchemy, though its meaning is not always readily decipherable. He imbued the inlays with a personal vision of scripture, rendered in the archetypal Renaissance Venetian style of the early 16th centuryâÂÂa period of intense anti-Lutheran debate. His ability to weave symbolic imagery with Greco-Roman mythology and pagan themes, merged through metaphoric depictions with biblical narratives, stands out.
Lotto's work spanned seven years, marked by occasional disputes with the congregation's regents, possibly due to his candid revelation of alchemical secrets.
Lotto's biblical scenes exhibit boundless scenic imagination, with a fluid narrative starkly distinct from the lofty, composed tones of Titian's works from the same period. Popular elements abound, particularly in the biblical episodes, paired with erudite, sometimes cryptic symbolism in the coversâÂÂyet broadly effective and immediate. The covers follow the style of heraldic emblems, featuring symbolic objects artfully juxtaposed and accompanied by brief mottos clarifying their meaning. This created evocative, memorable images that aided the clergy in meditating on the biblical episodes' significance.
Amid their complex meaningsâÂÂdrawn from scholasticism and philosophyâÂÂalchemical references emerge, tied to messages promoting asceticism. In the era's culture, the transformation of metals paralleled the soul's spiritual refinement.. This is evident in the Restauratio humana cover above Arca di Noè on the choir's front. Above the floating ark, a pole bears alchemical tools: a touchstone pouch, a crucible with seven metal rods, and a balance. The implication is that, just as Noah renewed humanity through his ark (Restauratio), individuals must purify their souls toward perfection and beatitude, akin to alchemists transforming metals into gold. Lotto was likely familiar with these themes from his youth in Treviso, where Hermes Trismegistus's texts, translated by Marsilio Ficino, were published in 1471, and where Giovanni Aurelio Augurelli, author of an alchemical poem, resided between 1503 and 1505
Among the most striking compositions is Davide e Golia, crafted as a double perspectival box with subtle chiaroscuro effects: in the foreground, David strikes the giant with his sling; to the left, the subsequent decapitation unfolds; and in the background to the right, the young hero carries Goliath's head into the city