The Rozvi Empire (c. 16831873), was a Shona state established by Changamire Dombo on the Zimbabwean Plateau. The term "Rozvi" refers to their legacy as a warrior nation, taken from the Shona term kurozva, "to plunder". They became the most powerful fighting force in the whole of Zimbabwe.
There is little information available on the Rozvi Empire because the Portuguese were barred from entering it, meaning contemporary accounts were based on hearsay, and dynastic oral traditions were greatly disrupted by migrations and the Ndebele and British conquests of the 1840s and 1890s respectively.
A 1506 account by Diogo de Alcáçova mentions a 'Changamire' (termed "Changamire I") who revolted against Mutapa in the 1490s. The genealogy of Changamire I has been the subject of speculation by scholars. Some scholars say he was a member of the Torwa dynasty of Butua or a friend of them, while others say he was a son of Matope or that he married one of Matope's daughters. After analysing Valoyi traditions, Mathebula and Mokgoatà ¡ana say that Changamire was likely a descendant of both dynasties, being the son of Matope or having married Matope's daughter (or both were true and he married his sister).
According to Alcáçova's account, rumours were spread by others close to Mukombero that Changamire (an influential Mutapa governor and member of the Torwa dynasty) was plotting for the kingship, and Mukombero ordered Changamire to undertake a poison trial, wherein if he drank the poison () and was harmed by it, he was deemed guilty. Accordingly, c. 1490 Changamire led an army to Mukombwe's and killed him, afterwards assuming the kingship. He is also said to have killed 21 of Mukombwe's sons, with Chikuyo Chisamarengu being the only one to escape. Around 1494, Chikuyo returned with a large army, and they fought a long and deadly battle ending in Changamire I's death. Chikuyo assumed the kingship and consolidated his rule over the empire, except for which stayed loyal to the successor Changamire II; over the course of the following decades the is known to have fought Changamire II (likely aided by Butua) intermittently, until at least 1512.
Scholars differ on whether Changamire Dombo, the founder of the Rozvi Empire, descended from Changamire I. Stan Mudenge considered to have been a honorific title, though others such as Catrien Van Waarden and David Beach thought it to have been a dynastic name, and Van Waarden says that Changamire I may have been the founder of the lineage that produced Dombo.
The followers of Changamire Dombo came from an area in the northeast of the Zimbabwean Plateau, between the upper Mazoe and rivers where the (heart) totem predominated. Following the ascension of Mavhura to the Mutapa kingship in 1629 during his war with Kapararidze, Mutapa became a Portuguese vassal. The following decades saw widespread lawlessness as Portuguese -holders in Mutapa, who were outside the jurisdiction of the 's courts due to the terms of the vassalage treaty, regularly raided and enslaved their Shona neighbours (and even deposed a ), with the Portuguese Crown unable and unwilling to stop them, incensing provincial chiefs. From the late 1660s to '80s, the wider region was devastated by locusts, smallpox, measles, and plagues (the effects of which were worsened by insecurity), with many villages and fields left abandoned. Trade greatly decreased, and Mudenge estimated that over half of Mutapa's population may have died.
Changamire Dombo (called "" or "" in traditions) is reported to have either been the keeper of Mukombwe's royal cattle herds which he used to gain support in territory, or the leader of a Mutapa army who rebelled. Both Mudenge and Beach considered the former to be true. The system involved someone loaning their cattle to another, who was permitted to keep the cattle's product and profit from it, but not to dispose of the cattle, effectively constituting vassalage. Beach said that Dombo's rise to power likely began in the 1670s, and he used the royal herds to gain followers, before seizing some land which Mukombwe then spuriously granted to him. Portuguese presence in Mutapa had been greatly reduced by the disasters, and in the early 1680s the Portuguese Crown ordered settlers to leave Mutapa to prevent Mukombwe's rebellion. However, throughout the 1680s and '90s Portuguese presence in the region increased again, as they sought to revive their occupation of Mutapa. According to one source, the Portuguese in the gold-producing kingdom of Manyika paid (a tax permitting trade) to Dombo, and had been attacked by his forces after refusing to continue payments, causing them to move into Maungwe. Around 1683, Dombo's forces attacked the Portuguese forces of the in Maungwe (in which the governor reportedly invested all of the Portuguese resources of the Zambezi Valley) and decisively defeated them. But before Dombo could pursue the retreating army, his land was attacked by Mukombwe's forces, which he also defeated, and it was reported that all Mutapa grandees and some Portuguese in Mutapa were killed.
With his followers (called "Rozvi", from the verb meaning "to destroy"), c. 1683 Dombo next turned to the Kingdom of Butua in the southwest of the Plateau. This out-migration was partly due to famine and disease in the northeast, but also because the (king) of Butua (which was wealthy) had recently won a civil war with Portuguese assistance, and their withdrawal may have left the in a weak position. Rozvi traditions say that in Butua there were two rulers, Chibundule and Tumbare of the (monkey/baboon) and (calabash) totems respectively, who both lived on hills (symbolising power and royalty), and that Dombo built his own hill taller than theirs. Kalanga (Butua) traditions say that Dombo was only able to defeat Chibundule (represented as having supernatural powers) by giving Chibundule his daughter/sister in marriage who cut his braids (worn like a horn on the fontanelle, symbolising power). Gifting a relative as a wife was often an act of submission, and one account said that Dombo initially paid tribute to Butua. Chibundule is then said to have been defeated in battle, before fleeing to the Matombo a Bhuba mountains where he disappeared. Kalanga traditions also mention Tumbare, but only as a Chief Councillor of Dombo, though they do detail how Tumbare's father attempted to take power three times (the third involving Chibundule's marriage). Van Waarden said that, along with the possible relations from Changamire I, Dombo's mother may have been Torwa as her lineage is said to have had the totem. Van Waarden concludes that factionalism in Butua likely allowed Dombo to support Tumbare to the Butua kingship, before "pushing him aside". Dombo spent the following years consolidating his rule in Butua.
Around 1693, Dombo may have supported Nyakunembire to the Mutapa kingship, foiling Portuguese plans to install their preferred candidate, and Nyakunembire requested Dombo's assistance against the Portuguese. In 1693 Dombo's forces attacked the (marketplace) of Dambarare, killing all its inhabitants and burning its church; all were subsequently abandoned save for ones in Manyika, and Portuguese traders fled, eventually reaching Tete. Dombo's forces likely continued to wreak havoc, burning down Masapa, and at some point relations between him and Nyakunembire soured. Dombo left to pursue his own interests elsewhere on the Plateau. By 1694 Dombo was back in the northeast campaigning in Maungwe, at which time Nyakunembire was ousted by the Portuguese candidate, and he fled to Dombo. Mudenge wrote that Dombo could have intervened and returned Nyakunembire back to power, but chose not to. In 1695 Dombo's forces invaded Manyika, forcing the temporary abandonment of its , and replacing its (king) with his own candidate, possibly Nyakunembire. From then on, Manyika was a Rozvi vassal. Following these battles and conquests, the Rozvi gained a reputation for ferocity and invincibility, said to have been due to their war drums. Throughout Dombo's reign, the Portuguese were terrified of possible attacks on Tete, Sena, and Sofala, viewing their own expulsion from the Plateau as comeuppance for their previous actions, however these did not happen as Dombo died c. 1696.
Following Dombo's death, there was a succession dispute involving his sons, one of which hurried back to Butua from the campaign in Manyika. One of the losing sons migrated to Hwange. In the late-17th century, members of the Changamire dynasty migrated southwards to the Soutpansberg to found the Venda Kingdom at Dzata, with traditions mentioning "political dissension". Thomas Huffman considered its leader to be another losing son. One Rozvi tradition says that the kingship was offered to Washaya who refused it, and Nechasike or Nechapingura ascended instead. Another tradition says that Dombo's successor was assisted by Kalanga ruler "Ndumba" (who was married to his sister, and possibly identified with Tumbare). In 1702, the Changamire raided Mutapa and helped Samutumbu Nyamhandu overthrow Chirimbe, though Chirimbe was reinstated a year later with Portuguese support.
Nechasike was succeeded by his brother Nechagadsike, who David Beach said may have lived until 1767. In 1768, civil war ensued between a previous ruler's son and a 'usurper', with the usurper eventually defeated and killed. Throughout the 18th and early-19th centuries, the region received migrations of Tswana, Birwa, Hlengwe, and Karanga populations, overcoming some of the Changamire's subjects and sometimes discontinuing payments of tribute. Rupandamananga ruled in the late-18th century, who tradition says failed to help the population during drought (coming to be called , "mad"). Rozvi traditions say that when the Mhari invaded the upper Runde Valley, a Rozvi conspiracy brought Rupandamananga into conflict with them and left him to die on the battlefield. A major drought occurred from 1795 to 1800. Accordingly, the Mhari supported Gumboremvura to the kingship, who was likely in power by 1802 and is remembered as a popular ruler. In Shona customs, losing candidates to the kingship were given territory near the capital; by 1802, one such branch of the Changamire dynasty was the Mutinhima house, whose origins vary, and its leader was reportedly the second most powerful position in the state. During Gumboremvura's reign, the Mutinhima house unsuccessfully revolted with support from the houses of Nerwande and Mavudzi, which were close advisors to the Changamire and ritually powerful.
After Gumboremvura's death, the kingship was contested by the title-holder and Chirisamhuru, which Chirisamhuru won with the assistance of the 's own sons. A major drought from 1824 to 1829 contributed to political instability. Long-standing trading partners like the Portuguese shifted their attention to slaves, thus decreasing demand for gold; thus the Shona tradition of gold mining and trade, which had lasted almost a millennium, declined and so the power of central governments like the Rozvi started to weaken. On top of all the challenges, the 1830s were a time of multiple invasions and wars that the Rozvi Empire never recovered completely from.
In the area of modern-day South Africa, several events resulted in a mass exodus. Drought, invading Dutch settlers and the catastrophic aftermath of the Mfecane resulted in waves of Nguni tribes moving north. Successive attacks on the Empire by the Mpanga, Ngwana, Maseko and Zwangendaba were repelled, but did much damage. Another wave of attacks followed from the group led by the Swazi Queen Nyamazanana, resulting in the capture of the capital Manyanga and the murder of the Rozvi Mambo Chirisamhuru. Contrary to the established narrative, this was not the end of the Rozvi Empire. Chirisamhuru's son, Tohwechipi escaped and went into exile in the Buhera area. With the support of the Mutinhima and other Noble Rozvi Houses, Tohwechipi effectively became the Rozvi Mambo.
Mzilikazi realized that although some of the Rozvi nobility had accepted him as King, most of the Shona did not accept him, limiting the geographic area of his Kingdom. Taking a diplomatic approach, he sent word to Tohwechipi asking him to return home and submit to him, crowning him King of the Shona. Tohwechipi did not accept Mzilikazi's offer and instead, consolidated his power and spent the next 30 years in a series of back-and-forth raids and counter-raids with Mzilikazi and eventually Lobengula, earning the nickname Chibhamubhamu because of his army of raiders armed with rifles. Tohwechipi was defeated in battle, and surrendered in 1866 and curiously, Mzilikazi let him go. He died around 1873 in the Nyashanu area in Buhera and was buried there in Mavangwe Hills. Tohwechipi's grave is a protected national monument.
The state was headed by a (king/emperor), and its capital was Danamombe (also called "Dhlo Dhlo" in Ndebele). One tradition says that Dombo stayed in "Chivari" before moving to Danamombe, and Naletale may have been used by the at times. In the state's final years, the capital may have been at Manyanga, near where Chirisamhuru died. The had a (council) whose positions were filled by Dombo's close advisors () and inherited by their lineages. They included four Chief Councillors, namely Nhale (of the (heart) totem, father of Meng'we who ruled over eastern Botswana), Mabhaya Gomo ( (calabash), father of Tumbare, head of the military), Ninjigwe (keeper cannons seized from the Portuguese, which appeared in praises), and Ngomane ( (leg), Chief Diviner). Along with the Chief Councillors, the included two (mother's brother) lineages (Nerwande and Mavudzi), who later fulfilled the role of priests and rainmakers, and Bagedze Moyo, the daughter/sister of Dombo who in traditions married Chibundule and curtailed his power; she served as the leader of women, and was allocated some of the state's wealth. These positions sought to represent various segments of society, including the military, local government, women, and the priesthood (and by extension the ancestors and Mwali (God)), as well as public opinion. The 's advised him at the (royal court), which saw to national matters and was primarily attended by men.
Succession to the kingship passed collaterally from brother to brother, first to the deceased 's eldest brother, then on to the next-eldest, and eventually to brothers of different houses (ie. different mothers), before passing on to the next generation and the eldest son of the eldest brother, and so forth. As with the Mutapa state, this rotation between houses caused much conflict within the royal family, and rulers often relied on support from outside of it. Losing candidates were compensated by being allocated land near the capital. The Rozvi population was composed of three groups: the people of the totem (which included the ruling dynasty), the non- people who accompanied them in their migration from the northeast, and the Kalanga (which included Butua's ruling class, who were incorporated into the state). The 's position depended on maintaining support from all of these groups.
The state was composed of concentric zones, with the territory around the capital ruled directly by the , a zone surrounding this ruled by royals, another zone ruled by associates of the (such as the houses and Rozvi), the core around Khami ruled by "Ndumba" (possibly Tumbare), and another zone consisting of Kalanga ruled by chiefs, along with tributaries located further from the capital.
The economic power of the Rozvi empire was based on cattle herding, farming, and gold mining. Crops included sorghum and millet, and the state depended heavily on subsistence farming. Livestock was important; they kept sheep, goats, cattle and chickens; men who owned much livestock had high social status. Mining was a major branch and was done by men. Internal and external trade were important, especially with Arab traders, exchanging ivory, copper and gold for guns, salt, beads and sea shells.
Rozvi kings revived the tradition of stone building and constructed impressive cities, now known as 'zimbabwes', throughout the southwest. Polychrome pottery was also emblematic. Warriors were armed with spears, shields, bows and arrows. Portuguese records show that the Rozvi were sophisticated military strategists. They were noted for using the cow-horn formation years before the great Zulu leader Shaka adopted it in the 19th century. Armed with spears, shields, bows and arrows, the aggressive Rozvi took over the Zimbabwe plateau.
Names and dates taken from John Stewart's African States and Rulers (1989).