The Kingdom of Butua or Butwa (âÂÂc. 1683) was a Kalanga (western Shona) kingdom located in what is now southwestern Zimbabwe. Butua was renowned as the source of gold for Arab and Portuguese traders. The first written record of the kingdom came from Ahmad ibn Majid in 1502.
The kingdom was governed by the Torwa dynasty until 1683 from its capital at Khami. Around 1683, the kingdom was conquered by the Rozwi Empire.
Khami was originally a Leopard's Kopje site, whose inhabitants are thought to be the ancestors of the Kalanga (southwestern Shona). During the time of Great Zimbabwe's dominance over the region, various offshoots split from it to form various states, one such state being the Mutapa Empire. In the early-15th century Angoche traders opened a new route along the Zambezi via the nascent Mutapa Empire and Ingombe Ilede to reach the goldfields west of Great Zimbabwe, bypassing it. Close to the goldfields, a local Leopard's Kopje chiefdom centred on Khami rose to prominence, contributing to Great Zimbabwe's decline. This was the Kingdom of Butua, with its first (king) Madabhale of the Torwa dynasty, who had the praise name (meaning "sounding of the war horn"). Kalanga oral traditions collected in 1922 compress the history of the Torwa dynasty into that of one ruler called Chibundule, such that the story of Chibundule represents that of Butua.
Jannie Loubser writes that some Butua chiefs and headmen likely moved south of the Limpopo River to exploit gold, copper, and ivory reserves there. Butua rapidly grew in size and wealth, and came to border the Mutapa Empire along the Sanyati River. There appear to have been intermarriages between the Torwa dynasty and the Nembire dynasty of Mutapa. Changamire I, who rebelled against and ruled Mutapa from 1490âÂÂ1494, was likely a member of both dynasties, and was possibly supported by the Torwa. In 1493, the gifted the (Mutapa king) 4000 cows and copious amounts of gold. The first written record of Butua came from Ahmad ibn Majid in 1502, who mentioned "Munhu Butua" ("King of Butua"). Due to tales such as that already mentioned, the Portuguese referred to Butua as the "Mother of Gold". The Portuguese traded far into the interior via African merchants, who were noted for their honesty. The Kalanga of Butua were reportedly not war-like (said to rely more on faith in Mwari), and the only mobilised his army in times of war. Women accompanied the army and cooked for them.
In the 1640s, a dispute between the mambo and his brother escalated. The brother had married into a powerful family of Shona-speaking Muslim traders (called '), and with the '<nowiki/>'s support he forced the into exile in Manyika. With the support of a Portuguese -holder and his army, the returned in 1644 and was reinstated. The '-holder left soldiers behind in the capital, however he was killed on the way to Manyika, after which the soldiers withdrew. Historian Malyin Newitt writes that Butua was too remote for Portuguese influence to last, however the episode bolstered Portuguese confidence that they could expand into the interior and conquer Mutapa.
Around 1683 Butua was conquered by Changamire Dombo, who is thought to have either been head of the Mwenemutapa's royal cattle herd, which he used to gain influence, or the leader of Mutapa's army, dispatched to Rozvi territory (the northeast) where he became leader of the Rozvi and rebelled. In the northeast, a European-introduced epidemic and famine had swept through the region, and there was likely anger about the Mwenemutapa selling gold-producing land to the Portuguese as ', dispossessing Karanga families. The Portuguese also dealt directly with chiefs' subjects, disrupting the hierarchical system, with this all propelling Rozvi out-migration. The Portuguese's withdrawal from Butua had likely left the Torwa with little support, possibly compounded by his failure to bring rain amid a drought.
Rozvi traditions say that in Butua there were two rulers, Chibundule and Tumbare of the (monkey/baboon) and (calabash) totems respectively, who both lived on hills (symbolising power and royalty), and that Dombo built his own hill taller than theirs. Kalanga (Butua) traditions say that Dombo was only able to defeat Chibundule (represented as having supernatural powers) by giving Chibundule his daughter/sister in marriage who cut his braids (worn like a horn on the fontanelle, symbolising power). Gifting a relative as a wife was often an act of submission. Chibundule is then said to have been defeated in battle, before fleeing to the Matombo a Bhuba mountains where he disappeared. Kalanga traditions also mention Tumbare, but only as a Chief Councillor of Dombo, though they do detail how Tumbare's father attempted to take power three times (the third involving Chibundule's marriage). Van Waarden said that, along with the possible relations from Changamire I, Dombo's mother may have been Torwa as her lineage is said to have had the totem. She also said that factionalism in Butua likely allowed Dombo to support Tumbare to the Butua kingship, before "pushing him aside". Certainly by his death in 1696, Changamire controlled all of Butua's territory. Changamire founded the Rozvi Empire with its capital at Danamombe, and used Butua as his base to expand into Manyika and Uteve in the 1680s, defeating the Portuguese and expelling Portuguese traders.He also attacked Mutapa in 1693, leading to the overthrow of its ruler. Some of the original inhabitants of Butua (now called the Lilima, a Kalanga sub-group) migrated into north-eastern Botswana.
Changamire's dynasty continued to rule in Butua at Danamombe, until it was destroyed during the 1830s amid the Ngoni invasions.
The had various Councillors ( or , one of which was head of the royal herds of cattle), minor councillors (), and royal advisors (). He also had a Great Diviner (), one of their tasks was rainmaking. Roles were likely hereditary. The had multiple residences for security reasons, with oral traditions mentioning five in and around the Matopos Hills. Cattle played an important role in politics, and the owned many. The government's tribute was collected by sub-chiefs from their people, and gifts were likely distributed, often in the form of loans of cattle.
According to Rozvi traditions the Torwa dynasty had the totem of the monkey (). Traditions collected in 1922 claim the kingdom covered the territory from Great Zimbabwe to the Makgadikgadi Pan, south to the Crocodile River, and north to the Zambezi, however other traditions say the mambo ruled from Gweru to the Motloutse River.
Scholars such as Thomas Huffman and Innocent Pikirayi have argued that Khami's society was hierarchical, however Chirikure et al. say that it was heterarchical and without hierarchical control over production, wherein class and status were dynamic and based on local contexts. Ceremonies were held at Khami where people prayed to Mwari for rain. Men sought to marry many wives and have as many children as possible. Produce, skins, and copper could be used to buy cattle and goats, which could then be used to acquire wives. Women sewed skins and furs into blankets, and copper was mined to make jewellery. Gold was mined in people's spare time, usually before planting season. Having a large amount of cattle symbolised high status, and were sought after in order to enlarge one's family. Jewellery was made from gold, bronze, copper, and iron, and was likely common.
Khami features monumental stone structures, which likely symbolised prestige, with reports that the stones were brought to Khami and laboured on as tribute (a service called ). Khami's royal palace resembles Leopard's Kopje architecture (specifically Woolandale). At the centre of Khami was the Hill Complex. Terraced stone walls were decorated and formed platforms upon which earthen () houses were built. Pikirayi has suggested that the existence of many of these platforms may be explained by Shona succession practices wherein successor kings continued to reside in their home, which became the capital's centre, rather than move to their predecessor's abode, although the prestige of the Hill Complex suggests some kings may have moved there and elites may have made their own platforms. Chirikure et al. have argued that the platforms were centres for familial lineages, supported by the platforms being as far as from Khami's centre. They also say that (Shona communal work) could have contributed to their construction.
After Changamire's conquest of Butua, the Rozvi did not allow the Portuguese to enter its territory, however they allowed African merchants hired by the Portuguese, termed , to trade in Butua.
Cattle were abundant in Butua, and were an important component of its economy. Cattle were also likely used for loans (a practice called ). The person who received the loan () could use the cattle as they saw fit and sell its produce, however they could not dispose of them without the owner's permission. The relationship between owner and ' resembled one of vassalage, and served to distribute food and wealth, with the owning most cattle. Despite Butua's fame for gold, Portuguese reports claimed that its people had little interest in gold mining, and focussed primarily on cattle. Regarding agriculture, sorghum and finger millet were favoured due to low rainfall.
Butua benefited from controlling the gold trade to its southwest, and in the kingdom gold, copper, tin, and iron were mined. Chirikure et al. have suggested that production was controlled at the household level. Smelting and tool manufacturing were also undertaken, along with cotton spinning, weaving, and hunting. Those hunted included wildebeest, buffalo, impala, sable antelope, kudu, and hartebeest, as well as elephants for ivory. Jewellery and ornaments were commonly produced. Gold, ivory, and animal skins were exported into the Indian Ocean trade, while glass beads, porcelain, and silver were imported.