RÃÂhula (born ) was the only son of SiddhÃÂrtha Gautama, commonly known as the Buddha, and his wife, princess Yaà ÂodharÃÂ. He is mentioned in numerous Buddhist texts, from the early period onward. Accounts about RÃÂhula indicate a mutual impact between Prince SiddhÃÂrtha's life and the lives of his family members.
According to the PÃÂli tradition, RÃÂhula was born on the day of Prince SiddhÃÂrtha's renunciation, and was therefore named RÃÂhula, meaning a fetter on the path to enlightenment.
According to the Mà «lasarvÃÂstivÃÂda tradition, however, RÃÂhula was only on the day of Prince Siddhartha's renunciation, and was born six years later, when Prince SiddhÃÂrtha became enlightened as the Buddha. This long gestation period was explained by bad karma from previous lives of both Yaà Âodharàand of RÃÂhula himself, although more naturalistic reasons are also given. As a result of the late birth, Yaà Âodharàneeded to prove that RÃÂhula was really Prince SiddhÃÂrtha's son, which she eventually did successfully by an act of truth.
Historian H.W. Schumann has argued that Prince SiddhÃÂrtha likely conceived RÃÂhula and waited for his birth, to be able to leave the palace with the king and queen's permission (having produced a Crown Heir as necessary for succession).
However, Orientalist Noël Péri considered it more likely that RÃÂhula was born after Prince SiddhÃÂrtha left his palace.
12 years after Rahula's birth, the Buddha returned to his hometown, where Yaà Âodharàhad RÃÂhula ask the Buddha for the throne of the à ÂÃÂkya clan. The Buddha responded by having RÃÂhula ordained as the first Buddhist novice monk. He taught the young novice about truth, self-reflection, and not-self, eventually leading to RÃÂhula's enlightenment. Although early accounts state that RÃÂhula died before the Buddha did, later tradition has it that RÃÂhula was one of the disciples that outlived the Buddha, guarding the Buddha's Dispensation until the rising of the next Buddha. RÃÂhula is known in Buddhist texts for his eagerness for learning, and was honored by novice monks and nuns throughout Buddhist history. His accounts have led to a perspective in Buddhism of seeing children as hindrances to the spiritual life on the one hand, and as people with potential for enlightenment on the other hand.
Some early texts such as those of the PÃÂli tradition do not mention RÃÂhula at all; but he is mentioned in later PÃÂli texts such as the ApadÃÂna and the commentaries, as well as in the texts on monastic discipline of the Mà «lasarvÃÂstivÃÂda and MahÃÂsaá¹Âghika traditions. Earliest texts do not describe RÃÂhula in much detail, and he remains an ideal figure without much depth in character. Because of the lack of detail, especially after RÃÂhula's ordination, some scholars have argued RÃÂhula did not have an important role in Buddhism. Apart from the early texts, there are many post-canonical Buddhist texts that contain accounts about RÃÂhula. The accounts about RÃÂhula reveal that when Prince SiddhÃÂrtha left his palace to become a monk; his decision and subsequent spiritual quest was not just a personal matter, but also affected his family every step during the way, as they responded to and affected the prince on his path to enlightenment. Thus, the prince's life before enlightenment is about two parallel spiritual lives, that of the Buddha and that of his family.
RÃÂhula was born on the same day Prince SiddhÃÂrtha Gautama renounced the throne by leaving the palace, when the prince was 29 years old, on the full moon day of the eighth lunar month of the ancient Indian calendar. That day, Prince SiddhÃÂrtha was preparing himself to leave the palace. The PÃÂli account claims that when he received the news of his son's birth he replied "", meaning "A rÃÂhu is born, a fetter has arisen", that is, an impediment to the search for enlightenment. Accordingly, à Âuddhodana, Prince SiddhÃÂrtha's father and king of the à ÂÃÂkya clan, named the child RÃÂhula, because he did not want his son to pursue a spiritual life as a mendicant. In some versions, Prince SiddhÃÂrtha was the one naming his son this way, for being a hindrance on his spiritual path. Just before the prince left the palace for the spiritual life, he took one look at his wife Yaà Âodharàand his just-born child. Fearing his resolve might waver, Prince SiddhÃÂrtha resisted to hold his son and left the palace as he had planned. RÃÂhula therefore became Prince SiddhÃÂrtha's first and only son.
Other texts derive rÃÂhu differently. For example, the PÃÂli ApadÃÂna, as well as another account found in the texts of monastic discipline of the Mà «lasarvÃÂstivÃÂda tradition, derive rÃÂhu from the eclipse of the moon, which traditionally was seen to be caused by the asura (demon) RÃÂhu. The ApadÃÂna states that just like the moon is obstructed from view by RÃÂhu, Prince SiddhÃÂrtha was obstructed by RÃÂhula's birth. The Mà «lasarvÃÂstivÃÂda tradition relates, however, that RÃÂhula was conceived on the evening of the renunciation of Prince SiddhÃÂrtha, and born six years later, on the day that his father achieved enlightenment, which was during a lunar eclipse. Further credence is given to the astrological theory of RÃÂhula's name by the observation that sons of previous Buddhas were given similar names, related to constellations.
Mà «lasarvÃÂstivÃÂda and later Chinese texts such as the Abhiniá¹£kramaá¹Âa Sà «tra give two types of explanation for the long gestation period. The first type involves the karma of Princess Yaà Âodharàand RÃÂhula himself. According to this interpretation, Yaà Âodharàhad to bear the suffering of carrying a child in her womb for six years, because in a previous life as a cow herder she had refused to help her mother to carry a pail of milk and left it for her mother to carry the extra pail for six leagues. As for RÃÂhula, his karma was that in a previous life as a king he unintentionally had a sage wait for six days. In this life, he was a king called Sà «rya and his brother, a previous life of the Buddha, was a hermit called Candra or Likhita who had taken a vow he would only live from what was given by people. One day, the brother broke his vow to take some water, and feeling guilty, asked the king to punish him. The king refused to issue a punishment for such a trivial matter, but had his brother wait for his final decision and constrained in the royal gardens. After six days, the king suddenly realized he had forgotten about the hermit and immediately set him free, including apologies and gifts. As a result, RÃÂhula had to wait for six years before being born. In some versions, the king did not allow a sage to enter his kingdom and accumulated the same bad karma of a long gestation period. The later MahÃÂyÃÂna commentary MahÃÂprajñÃÂpÃÂramitÃÂupadeà Âa () does not blame Yaà ÂodharÃÂ's karma for the six years gestation period, but does mention RÃÂhula's same karma as a king. However, in the 13th-century Japanese devotional text Raun Kà Âshiki, RÃÂhula's late birth is seen as evidence of a miracle, rather than a result of karma.
The second type of explanation consists of the more naturalistic argument that Yaà Âodharàwas practicing religious austerities involving fasting and sleeping on a straw bed, which caused RÃÂhula's growth to slow down. She was involved in these practices during the time when SiddhÃÂrtha was practicing self-mortification. Later, King à Âuddhodana prevented Yaà Âodharàfrom hearing any news of her former husband, and she gradually became healthier, as the pregnancy continued normally. However, some time later, the false rumor spread that the former prince had died of his ascetism. Yaà Âodharàbecame very desperate and depressed, endangering her own pregnancy. When the news reached the palace that SiddhÃÂrtha had attained enlightenment, Yaà Âodharàwas overjoyed and gave birth to RÃÂhula. Buddhist Studies scholar John S. Strong notes that this account draws a parallel between the quest for enlightenment and Yaà ÂodharÃÂ's path to being a mother, and eventually, they both are accomplished at the same time.
The late childbirth leads to doubts in the à ÂÃÂkya clan as to who is the father, as told in the Mà «lasarvÃÂstivÃÂda tradition, in the MahÃÂprajñÃÂpÃÂramitÃÂupadeà Âa and in the later Chinese Zabaozang jing (). Since RÃÂhula's birth was not regarded by Buddhists to be a virginal or miraculous birth, tradition had to explain that Prince SiddhÃÂrtha was actually the father. Yaà Âodharàresponded by putting her child on a stone in a pond of water and making an act of truth that if RÃÂhula really was his child, that RÃÂhula and the stone may not sink, but rather float back-and-forth. After she made the declaration, the child floated according to her vow. Strong notes that this is a symbolic parallel with the attainment of enlightenment by the Buddhadescribed as the "further shore"and the return to teach humankind. The MahÃÂprajñÃÂpÃÂramitÃÂupadeà Âa contains another account, in which Prince SiddhÃÂrtha has several wives, and a wife other than Yaà Âodharàis the one defending her, being witness of her purity in conduct.
Furthermore, in both the Mà «lasarvÃÂstivÃÂda texts and the MahÃÂprajñÃÂpÃÂramitÃÂupadeà Âa, there is a third account that proves Yaà ÂodharÃÂ's purity in conduct: in this version, the Buddha made everyone around him look identical to him, through a supernatural accomplishment. RÃÂhula proved that the Buddha was his true father when he managed to approach the real Buddha straight away. In a fourth story about proving Yaà Âodhara's purity, appearing in Chinese AvadÃÂna-style texts from the 5th century CE onward, she was burnt alive, but miraculously survived. In this account, King à Âuddhodana ordered that she be killed by burning her alive as punishment for her alleged impurity. Instead of being hurt by the flames, however, she performed an act of truth and the fire transformed into a pond of water. à Âuddhodana welcomed her and her son back into the clan, and later became very fond of RÃÂhula. Some Chinese JÃÂtakas say that he recognized his son SiddhÃÂrtha in the child, and managed to better cope with the loss of Prince SiddhÃÂrtha. Religion scholar Reiko Ohnuma sees the fire ordeal as a metaphor that parallels the Buddha's enlightenment, a similar argument that Strong makes.
Historians Mircea Eliade and H.W. Schumann hypothesized that Prince SiddhÃÂrtha conceived RÃÂhula to please his parents, to obtain their permission for leaving the palace and becoming a mendicant. It was an Indian custom to renounce the world only after the birth of a child or grandchild. Schumann further speculated that the prince only conceived a son thirteen years after his marriage, because Yaà Âodharàinitially did not want to bear a child, for fear that the prince would leave the palace and the throne as soon as the child was conceived. Orientalist Noël Péri believed, however, that a late gestation period was more historically probable than the birth on the same day, as in the PÃÂli tradition. He believed that if Prince SiddhÃÂrtha had left an heir to the throne, there would have been no sound reason for him to leave secretly at night. In many traditional biographies, Prince SiddhÃÂrtha is described leaving the palace without his parents' permission. Péri argued that this makes little sense if he had already provided an heir to his parents' satisfaction. He further argued that there are many sources that try to explain the long gestation period, indicating an established tradition. Nevertheless, although many traditional accounts of the Buddha's life relate that Siddhartha leaves the palace in secret, Early Buddhist Texts clearly state that his parents are aware of his choice, as they are said to weep at the time their son leaves them.
From a mythological and text critical point of view, Buddhist Studies scholar Kate Crosby argues that Prince SiddhÃÂrtha conceiving or giving birth to a son before his renunciation functions as a motif to prove that he was the best at each possible path in life: after having tried the life of a father to the fullest, he decided to leave it behind for a better alternative. In early Buddhist India, being a father and bearing a son was seen as a spiritual and religious path as well as that of renouncing one's family, and Prince SiddhÃÂrtha's bringing a son in the world before renunciation proves he was capable of both. Buddhist studies scholar John S. Strong hypothesizes that the Mà «lasarvÃÂstivÃÂda version of the story of the prince conceiving a child on the eve of his departure was developed to prove that the Buddha was not physically disabled in some way. A disability might have raised doubts about the validity of his ordination in monastic tradition.
The accounts continue and describe that RÃÂhula was raised by his mother Yaà Âodharàand grandfather King à Âuddhodana. When RÃÂhula was between seven and fifteen years old, the Buddha returned to his home city of Kapilavastu at the request of à Âuddhodana. The MahÃÂvastu text from the LokottaravÃÂda tradition states that the royals tried to prevent RÃÂhula from learning about the return of his father, but eventually he insisted to know who the "Great Ascetic" about to arrive was, and he was told. Next, the MahÃÂvastu and the Mà «lasarvÃÂstivÃÂda texts relate that Yaà Âodharàtried to tempt the Buddha back into his life as a prince by having RÃÂhula offer the Buddha an aphrodisiac. Mà «lasarvÃÂstivÃÂda texts continue and tell that her plan backfired when the Buddha had RÃÂhula eat it himself, and RÃÂhula therefore became enamored by his father and wished to follow him. In the PÃÂli version of the story, on the seventh day of the Buddha's return, Yaà Âodharàtook RÃÂhula to see his father, the Buddha. She told RÃÂhula that since his father had renounced the palace life and as he was the next royal prince in line, he should ask his father for his inheritance of crown and treasure. This would be for his future sake when his grandfather would no longer rule the kingdom. After the Buddha had a meal, RÃÂhula followed the Buddha and asked him for his inheritance. The Buddha did not try to prevent RÃÂhula from following him, but in some versions of the story, some women from the court did try to, yet RÃÂhula persisted. He then looked at his father and says, "Pleasant is your shadow, recluse". After RÃÂhula reached the Park of Nigrodha, where the Buddha was staying, the Buddha considered that the heritage of the throne would one day perish, and was tied up with suffering and stress: "I will give him the wealth I obtained under the tree of enlightenment thus making him the heir of an inheritance that does not perish."
Most traditions relate that the Buddha then called à ÂÃÂriputra and asked him to ordain RÃÂhula. RÃÂhula was ordained, becoming the first à ÂrÃÂmaá¹Âera (novice monk), and probably the first person in the monastic order to receive ordination in a formal way. In some versions of the story, such as the 9th-century Chinese Weicengyou Yinyuan Jing (), a group of young boys were ordained together with him. The king discovered that his grandson, his son Nanda and a number of other young men in the royal family had then received ordination and left the palace. Seeing his daughter grieve, he asked the Buddha that from now on, he only ordain people with the consent of their parents. à Âuddhodana explained that RÃÂhula's ordination was a great shock to him. The Buddha assented to the proposal. This rule was later expanded in the case of women ordaining, as both parents and the husband had to give permission first to allow women to join the order of monks and nuns. In some versions of the story of RÃÂhula's ordination, Yaà Âodharàalso protested, but relented in the end. The MahÃÂvastu states, however, that RÃÂhula asked to ordain himself, and was eventually granted permission by Yaà Âodharàand à Âuddhodana.
Archaeologist Maurizio Taddei has noted that in many GandhÃÂran art depictions, RÃÂhula's life is linked to that of a previous life of the Buddha, the hermit Sumedha. The Buddha giving his spiritual heritage to his son is compared to that of Sumedha allowing the Buddha Dëpaá¹Âkara to walk over him, which was followed by Dipaá¹Âkara predicting that Sumedha will become a Buddha in a future life. Both the figure of Gautama Buddha giving his inheritance to his son, and the figure of Dëpaá¹Âkara Buddha giving his inheritance of Buddhahood to Sumedha are depicted with flames emitting from their bodies; both scenes are depictions of inheritance, filial and disciple piety; both may have been considered by 5th-century Buddhists to be representations of "eager youth".
According to the PÃÂli texts, once RÃÂhula had become novice, the Buddha taught RÃÂhula regularly. His instructions were very age-specific, using vivid metaphors and simple explanations. The Buddha's teachings have led to numerous discourses being named after RÃÂhula in the Early Buddhist Texts. PÃÂli texts relate how RÃÂhula grew up to become a novice that was diligent, dutiful, amenable and eager for learning, but there are also some early medieval Chinese and Japanese accounts which relate that RÃÂhula initially struggled with being a novice and only later appreciated the Buddha's teaching. Besides the Buddha, à ÂÃÂriputra and MaugalyayÃÂna also helped to teach RÃÂhula. RÃÂhula often assisted à ÂÃÂriputra on his rounds for alms in the morning, and sometimes on other travels. Every morning, RÃÂhula woke up and threw a handful of sand in the air, making the wish that he may be counselled by good teachers as much as those grains of sand.
Still in the same year as RÃÂhula's ordination, the Buddha taught his son the importance of telling the truth in a discourse known as the Ambalaá¹Âá¹Âhika-RÃÂhulovÃÂda Sutta. In this discourse, the Buddha taught and encouraged consistent self-reflection, to help let go of all evil actions that lead to harm to oneself and others, and to develop self-control and a moral life. He encouraged reflection before, during and after one's actions, and explained that lying makes the spiritual life void and empty, leading to many other evils.
When RÃÂhula became eighteen years old, the Buddha instructed RÃÂhula in a meditation technique to counter the desires that hinder him during his tours for alms. RÃÂhula had grown enamored with his own and his father's handsome appearance. To help RÃÂhula, the Buddha taught another discourse to him. He told RÃÂhula that all matter is not-self, and the same held for the different parts of one's mental experience. Having heard the discourse, RÃÂhula started to practice meditation. His teacher à ÂÃÂriputra recommended him to practice breathing meditation, but was unable to give RÃÂhula the instructions he needed. RÃÂhula therefore asked the Buddha to explain the meditation method in more detail and the Buddha responded by describing several meditation techniques to him. On a similar note, the Buddha taught RÃÂhula at a place called Andhavana about the impermanence of all things, and instructed him how to overcome the "taints" inside the mind. As a result, RÃÂhula attained enlightenment. PÃÂli tradition has it that the sermon was also attended by a crore of heavenly beings, who once had vowed to witness the enlightenment of the son of the Buddha. RÃÂhula obtained the name "RÃÂhula the Lucky" (; ), which he himself explained was because of being the son of the Buddha, and because of having attained enlightenment.
Later, the Buddha declared that RÃÂhula was foremost among all disciples in eagerness in learning (). and in the PÃÂli UdÃÂna, the Buddha included him as one of eleven particularly praiseworthy disciples. Chinese sources add that he was also known for his patience, and that he was foremost in 'practicing with discretion' (), meaning practicing the Buddha's teaching consistently, dedication to the precepts and study, but without seeking praise or being proud because of being the son of the Buddha. PÃÂli texts give examples of RÃÂhula's strictness in monastic discipline. E.g. after there was a rule established that no novice could sleep in the same room as a fully ordained monk, RÃÂhula was said to have slept in an outdoor toilet. When the Buddha became aware of this, he admonished the monks for not taking proper care of the novices. After that, the Buddha adjusted the rule.
PÃÂli texts state that despite RÃÂhula being his son, the Buddha did not particularly favor him: he is said to have loved problematic disciples such as Aá¹ gulimÃÂla and Devadatta as much as his own son, without any bias. Schumann writes that the Buddha's relationship with his son was "... trusting and friendly, but not cordial or intimate", in order to prevent attachment in the monastic life. Schumann concludes that the Buddha's discourses to his son were essentially not different in nature from those he gave to his other disciples.
Later in RÃÂhula's life his mother Yaà Âodharàbecame ordained as a nun. In one story, the nun Yaà Âodharàfell ill with flatulence. RÃÂhula helped her recover by asking his teacher à ÂÃÂriputra to find sweetened mango juice for her, which was the medicine she was used to and required. Therefore, with RÃÂhula's help, she eventually recovered.
When he was 20 years old, RÃÂhula fully ordained as a monk in SÃÂvatthë.
RÃÂhula's death receives little attention in the earliest sources. RÃÂhula died before the Buddha and his teacher à Âariputra did. According to PÃÂli and Chinese sources, this happened as he was travelling psychically through the second Buddhist heaven (). According to the early Ekottara ÃÂgama (SÃÂrvastivÃÂda or MahÃÂsaá¹ ghika tradition) and the later à ÂÃÂriputrapá¹ÂcchÃÂ, however, RÃÂhula was one of the four enlightened disciples whom Gautama Buddha asked to prolong their lives to stay in the world until the next Buddha Maitreya has risen, to protect his dispensation.
Following the PÃÂli and Sanskrit language sources, RÃÂhula was the son of the Buddha-to-be throughout many lifetimes. He developed his habit of being amenable and easy to teach in previous lives. PÃÂli texts explain that in a previous life he was impressed by the son of a previous Buddha, and vowed to be like him in a future life.
Texts in the MahÃÂyÃÂna tradition describe that RÃÂhula is the eleventh of the 16 Elders (; Chinese tradition added two elders in the 10th century, making for 18 Elders), enlightened disciples that have been entrusted with taking care of the Buddha's dispensation until the rising of Maitreya Buddha. Tradition states therefore that RÃÂhula will be alive until the next Buddha, and until that time resides with 1,100 of his pupils in an island called the 'land of chestnuts and grains' (). The pilgrim Xuan Zang (602664) heard a brahmin claim that he met RÃÂhula as an old man, who had delayed his passing into Nirvana and was therefore still alive. On a similar note, RÃÂhula is considered one of the Ten Principal Disciples, known for his dedication to training new monks and novices. Moreover, he is considered to be one of the 2328 masters in the lineage of the Tiantai tradition, one of the 28 in the Chan lineage, and one of the eight enlightened disciples in the Burmese tradition.
As one of the enlightened disciples responsible for protecting the Buddha's dispensation, RÃÂhula has often been depicted in East Asian art. He is depicted with a large, "umbrella-shaped" head, prominent eyes and a hooked nose.
The Chinese monks Xuan Zang and Faxian (320420 CE) noted during their pilgrimages in India that a cult existed that worshiped RÃÂhula, especially in the Madhura area. Whereas monks would worship certain early male disciples following their particular specialization, and nuns would honor ÃÂnanda in gratitude for helping to set up the nuns' order, novices would worship RÃÂhula. The two Chinese pilgrims noted that Emperor Aà Âoka built a monument in honor of RÃÂhula, especially meant for novices to pay their respects. Religious studies scholar Lori Meeks points out with regard to Japan, however, that RÃÂhula was not the individual object of any devotional cult, but was rather honored as part of a group of enlightened disciples, such as the 16 Elders. Exception to this was the 13th14th century, when the figure of RÃÂhula became an important part of a revival of devotion to early Buddhist disciples among the old Nara schools, as chanted lectures (kà Âshiki) rites, and images were used in dedication to RÃÂhula. On regular days of religious observance, male and female novices performed rites and gave lectures in honor of RÃÂhula. These were popular with the laypeople, as well as with priests that aimed to revive Indian Buddhism, in particular early Buddhist monastic discipline. In the kà Âshiki RÃÂhula was praised extensively, and was described as the "Eldest Child", eldest being a devotional term, since Prince SiddhÃÂrtha had no other children. Thus, the person of RÃÂhula became an object of devotion and inspiration for monks who wished to observe monastic discipline well.
The Lotus Sà «tra, as well as later East Asian texts such as the Raun Kà Âshiki, relate that Gautama Buddha predicts RÃÂhula will become a Buddha in a future life, named "Stepping on Seven Treasure Flowers" (). In these texts, RÃÂhula is seen as a MahÃÂyÃÂna type of Buddha-to-be, who would save many sentient beings and lives in a Pure Land.
The exhortations the Buddha gives to RÃÂhula have also become part of his legacy. The Ambalaá¹Âá¹Âhika-RÃÂhulovÃÂda Sutta became one of the seven Buddhist texts recommended for study in the inscriptions of the Emperor Aà Âoka. This discourse has been raised by modern ethicists as evidence for consequentalist ethics in Buddhism, though this is disputed.
RÃÂhula is mentioned as one of the founders of a system of Buddhist philosophy called the VaibhÃÂá¹£ika, which was part of the SarvÃÂstivÃÂda schools. He is also considered by some Thai schools of Buddhist borÃÂn meditation to be the patron of their tradition, which is explained by referring to RÃÂhula's gradual development in meditation as opposed to the instant enlightenment of other disciples.
From the narratives surrounding RÃÂhula several conclusions have been drawn with regard to Buddhist perspectives on childhood. Several scholars have raised RÃÂhula's example to indicate that children in Buddhism are seen as an obstacle to spiritual enlightenment, or that Buddhism, being a monastic religion, is not interested in children. Education scholar Yoshiharu Nakagawa argues, however, that RÃÂhula's story points at two ideals of childhood which exist parallel in Buddhism: that of the common child, subject to the human condition, and that of the child with a potential for enlightenment, who Crosby describes as a heroic disciple. Religion scholar Vanessa Sasson notes that although Prince SiddhÃÂrtha initially abandons his son, he comes back for him and offers a spiritual heritage to him as opposed to a material one. This heritage is given from a viewpoint of trust in the potential of the child RÃÂhula, presuming that the Buddhist path can also be accessed by children.
The acceptance of RÃÂhula in the monastic order as a child set a precedent, which later developed into a widespread Buddhist tradition of educating children in monasteries. The numerous teachings given to RÃÂhula have left behind teaching material which could be used for teaching children of different ages, and were sophisticated for the time period with regard to their age-specific material. TheravÃÂda tradition further built on this genre, with PÃÂli manuals of religious teaching for novices. Writing about the Buddha's teachings methods used for RÃÂhula, psychologist Kishani Townshend argues "... Buddha's use of Socratic questioning, poetic devices and role modelling are still relevant to developing virtue in today's children."