Jain meditation () includes various practices of reflection and meditation. While Jainism considers yoga and dhyana as necessary practices, it has never been a fully developed practice, but "an adjunct to austerity" to still mental and physical activity. According to the Jain-canon, the only means to attain liberation is sukla-dhyÃÂna, but essential knowledge of dhyana may have been lost early in the Jain-tradition, and the TattvÃÂrtha-sà «tra (2nd-5th c. CE) "states that pure meditation (sukla-dhyÃÂna, e.g. samadhi) is unattainable in the current time-cycle." Nevertheless, sÃÂmÃÂyika (equanimity) is an essential practice in Jainism.
The oldest descriptions of Jain yoga and meditation can be found in the Acaranga Sutra (300 BCE), which describes the solitary ascetic meditation of Mahavira. It mentions TrÃÂá¹Âaka (fixed gaze) meditation, and uses the phrase "kÃÂyaá¹ vosajjamaá¹ÂgÃÂre" (ÃÂS1, 9.3.7.), "an ascetic who has given up the body," which may be an early reference to Kayotsarga, "giving up the body," an essential Jain meditative practice, in which one stands motionless, signifying the death of the body, achieving tranquility and purity of mind, resembling the three limbs of dharana, dhyana, and samadhi of Patanjali's eight limb yoga. The Sutrakritanga (2nd c. BCE) mentions preksha (self-observation), and states that "the ultimate means for emancipation are dhyana, yoga and titiksa (tolerance). It also states that yoga and meditation can be completed by kayotsarga.
Texts attributed to a Kundakunda (collective authorship, ca. 450 to 1150 CE) incorporated samkhya, Buddhist and Advaita Vedanta influences. The 8th century Jain philosopher Haribhadra wrote the Yogadá¹Âá¹£á¹Âisamuccaya, developing his own unique system that "depart[ed] from the scriptures," assimilating many elements from Patañjali's Yoga-sà «tra into his new Jain yoga. The 20th century saw the development and spread of new modernist forms of Jain dhyana, including preká¹£ÃÂ-dhyÃÂna of the à ÂvÃÂtÃÂmbara TerÃÂpanth-sect, which sought to rediscover Jain meditation; and the stress on direct recognition the self or atman by various teachers, and by Digambara lay-movements who are inspired by texts attributed to a Kundakunda (450-1100 CE).
Paul Dundas notes that Jainism never âÂÂfully developed a culture of true meditative contemplation.â According to Dundas, Jainism
According to Dundas, while earliest Jainism may have had a tradition of stilling the mind inherited by highly accomplished kevalins, the knowledge of these skills was lost at an early date in the history of Jainism, leaving Jains incapable of attaining these states.
Jainism has been influenced by other Indian religions and traditions, including yoga, samkhya, Buddhism, and Advaita Vedanta. Texts attributed to a Kundakunda (collective authorship, ca. 450 to 1150 CE) incorporated samkhya, Buddhist and Advaita Vedanta influences. The 8th century Jain philosopher Haribhadra assimilated many elements from PatañjaliâÂÂs Yoga-sà «tra into his new Jain yoga.
According to Sagarmal Jain, "the Jain sadhana of the canonical age was centered on a three- or fourfold path of emancipation, i.e. right faith, right knowledge, right conduct, and right austerity." Meditation is a form of austerity and ascetic practice (tapas), which is a central feature of Jainism. Ascetic life may include nakedness, symbolizing non-possession even of clothes, fasting, body mortification, and penance, to burn away past karma and stop producing new karma, both of which are believed essential for reaching siddha and moksha ("liberation from rebirths" and "salvation").
Jain texts like Tattvartha Sà «tra and Uttaradhyayana Sà «tra discuss austerities in detail. Six outer and six inner practices are oft-repeated in later Jain texts. Outer austerities include complete fasting, eating limited amounts, eating restricted items, abstaining from tasty foods, mortifying the flesh, and guarding the flesh (avoiding anything that is a source of temptation). Inner austerities include expiation, confession, respecting and assisting mendicants, studying, meditation, and ignoring bodily wants in order to abandon the body. Lists of internal and external austerities vary with the text and tradition. Asceticism is viewed as a means to control desires, and to purify the jiva (soul).
Kayotsarga, "giving up the body," is an essential practice in the earliest texts. According to Jain-tradition, this was practiced by Mahavira when he attained liberation.
In kayotsarga one stands motionless, "unaffected by physical surroundings as well as emotions," signifying the death of the body, and achieving tranquility and purity of mind. The intense meditation described in these texts "is an activity that leads to a state of motionlessness, which is a state of inactivity of body, speech and mind, essential for eliminating karma."
According to Sagarmal Jain, kayotsarga resembling the three limbs of dharana, dhyana, and samadhi of Patanjali's eight limb yoga.
Sukla-dhyana, "pure" or "clean" meditation, also rendered as "abstract" meditation, is another essential practice in the earliest texts, according to Jain-tradition practiced by Mahavira when he attained liberation.
Sukla-dhyana] has four elements:
The first two are said to require knowledge of the lost Jain scriptures known as purvas, and thus since ca. 150-350 CE pure meditation is considered to be no longer possible. The other two forms are said in the Tattvartha sutra to be only accessible to Kevalins (enlightened ones). The TattvÃÂrtha-sà «tra "states that pure meditation (sukla-dhyÃÂna, e.g. samadhi) is unattainable in the current time-cycle." yet, the Jain-tradition solved this problem of non-accessibility by the mytheme of Mahavideha, a non-earthly realm were this knowledge is preserved, and people who are reborn in this realm can access this knowledge.
According to Jain accounts, first attested by Jayasena (ca. 1150âÂÂ1200), Kundakunda visited Mahavideha receiving the teachings from Jina Simandhara, which gave Kundakunda insight into the true nature of the soul. Kanji Swami elaborated on the Kundakunda-narrative, by claiming that, in a previous life, he was present when This presence was suggested to him by Campabahen Mataji, a female disciple, who said that she also had been present then.
Anuprekṣà('contemplation'), also called bhÃÂvanà('reflection') is one of the central practices of Jainism. Anuprekṣàtypically refers to the twelve reflections:
According to Sagarma Jain, the threefold path can be summarized in sÃÂmÃÂyika or samatva yoga, and is "the principal concept of Jainism." It is the first of the six avashyak (duties) for monks and householders.
According to Padmanabh Jaini, SÃÂmÃÂyika is a practice of "brief periods in meditation" in Jainism that is a part of siksavrata (ritual restraint). The goal of SÃÂmÃÂyika is to achieve equanimity, and it is the second siksavrata.
According to Johnson, as well as Jaini, samayika connotes more than meditation, and for a Jain householder is the voluntary ritual practice of "assuming temporary ascetic status". According to Dundas, samayika seems to have meant "correct behavior" in early Jainism.
The samayika ritual is practiced at least three times a day by mendicants, while a layperson includes it with other ritual practices such as Puja in a Jain temple and doing charity work. It consits of:
The Digambara-tradition developed meditative parctices which center on the distinction between "self" (atman) and "other" (body), akin to the Samkhya purusha-prakriti dualism. Foundational in this regard are the writings by Kundakunda (collective authorship, ca. 450 to 1150 CE), which show influences from Samkhya, Mahayana Buddhism, and especially Advaita Vedanta, reflected in the distinction between nià Âcayanaya or âÂÂultimate perspectiveâ and vyavahÃÂranaya or âÂÂmundane perspectiveâÂÂ, or the pure atman and the material world. The recognition of this distinction is called bhed-jnan, bhedvijnan, bheda-vijnana, bhedvigyan, or bhedgnan.
With the Kundakunda-texts the Digambara developed a mystical tradition focusing on the direct realization of the ultimate perspective of the pure soul. Kundakunda's emphasis on liberating knowledge has become a mainstream view in Digambara Jainism, and the Kundakunda-texts were an important inspiration for Shrimad Rajchandra (1867âÂÂ1901), who in turn inspired Kanji Swami (1890âÂÂ1980), Rakesh Jhaveri and the Shrimad Rajchandra Mission, and Dada Bhagwan (1908âÂÂ1988).
Sagarmal Jain divides the history of Jaina yoga and meditation into five stages: 1. pre-canonical (before 6th century BCE); 2. canonical age (5th century BCE to 5th century CE); 3. post-canonical (6th century CE to 12th century CE); 4. age of tantra and rituals (13th to 19th century CE); 5. modern age (20th century on).
In the pre-canonical period, Jainism developed as one of the sramana-movements in the 6th-5th century BCE, just like Buddhism, Ajivika, Samkhya and Yoga.
In this era, the Jain canon was recorded and Jain philosophy systematized. Sagarmal Jain notes that during the canonical age of Jaina meditation, one finds strong analogues with the 8 limbs of Patanjali Yoga, including the yamas and niyamas, through often under different names. Sagarmal also notes that during this period the Yoga systems of Jainism, Buddhism and Patanjali Yoga had many similarities. Nevertheless, "the Jain sadhana of the canonical age was centered on a three- or fourfold path of emancipation, i.e. right faith, right knowledge, right conduct, and right austerity."
The earliest mention of yogic practices appear in early Jain canonical texts like the ÃÂcÃÂrÃÂá¹ ga Sà «tra (3rd c. BCE), Sutrakritanga (2nd c. BCE), and Rsibhasita.
The ÃÂcÃÂrÃÂá¹ ga Sà «tra, one of the oldest Jain texts, describes the solitary ascetic meditation of Mahavira. It mentions TrÃÂá¹Âaka (fixed gaze) meditation, and uses the phrase "kÃÂyaá¹ vosajjamaá¹ÂgÃÂre" (ÃÂS1, 9.3.7.), "an ascetic who has given up the body," which may be an early reference to Kayotsarga, "giving up the body." The Acaranga also mentions the tapas practice of standing in the heat of the sun (ÃÂtÃÂpanÃÂ). Mahavira's practice is described as follows:
The ÃÂcÃÂrÃÂá¹ ga Sà «tra states that Mahavira, after more than twelve years of austerities and meditation, entered the state of Kevala Jnana while doing "abstract meditation" in a squatting position: "..in a squatting position with joined heels exposing himself to the heat of the sun, with the knees high and the head low, in deep meditation, in the midst of abstract meditation, he reached Nirvana."
According to Pragya, from the ÃÂcÃÂrÃÂá¹ ga Sà «tra "we can conclude that MahÃÂvëraâÂÂs method of meditation consisted of perception and concentration in isolated places, concentration that sought to be unaffected by physical surroundings as well as emotions." Pragya also notes that fasting was an important practice done alongside meditation. The intense meditation described in these texts "is an activity that leads to a state of motionlessness, which is a state of inactivity of body, speech and mind, essential for eliminating karma."
The Sutrakritanga mentions preksha (self-observation), and states that "the ultimate means for emancipation are dhyana, yoga and titiksa (tolerance). It also states that yoga and meditation can be completed by kayotsarga, "giving up the body," or "to give up one's physical comfort and body movements," an essential Jain meditative practice in which one stands motionless, signifying the death of the body, and achieving tranquility and purity of mind. Sagarmal Jain compares kayotsarga to the last three stages of Patanjali's eight limb of yoga, dharana, dhyana, and samadhi.
According to Samani Pratibha Pragya, the four mà «lasà «tras are important sources for early Jain meditation. The UttarÃÂdhyayana-sà «tra "offers a systematic presentation of four types of meditative practices such as: meditation (dhyÃÂna), abandonment of the body (kÃÂyotsarga), contemplation (anupreká¹£ÃÂ), and reflection (bhÃÂvanÃÂ)." Another meditation described in the ÃÂvaà Âyaka-sà «tra is meditation on the tërthaá¹ karas.
The Sthananga Sutra (c. 2nd century BCE) gives a summary of four main types of meditation (dhyana) or concentrated thought. The first two are mental or psychological states in which a person may become fully immersed and are causes of bondage. The other two are pure states of meditation and conduct, which are causes of emancipation. They are:
The first two are said to require knowledge of the lost Jain scriptures known as purvas and thus it is considered by some Jains that pure meditation was no longer possible. The other two forms are said in the Tattvartha sutra to be only accessible to Kevalins (enlightened ones).
This broad definition of the term dhyana means that it signifies any state of deep concentration, with good or bad results. Later texts like Umaswati's TattvÃÂrthasà «tra and Jinabhadra's Dhyana-Sataka (sixth century) also discusses these four dhyanas. This system seems to be uniquely Jain.
Bhadrabahu II (c. 2nd c. CE) composed the ÃÂvaà Âyaka-Niryukti, describing Mahavira as practicing intense austerities, fasts (most commonly three days long, as extreme as six months of fasting) and meditations. In one instance he practiced standing meditation for sixteen days and nights. He did this by facing each of the four directions for a period of time, and then turning to face the intermediate directions as well as above and below.
The Tattvarthasutra, composed by UmÃÂsvÃÂti (fl. sometime between the 2nd and 5th-century CE), is a key text which codified Jain doctrine. According to the Tattvarthasutra, yoga is the sum of all the activities of mind, speech and body. UmÃÂsvÃÂti calls yoga the cause of "asrava" or karmic influx as well as one of the essentialsâÂÂsamyak caritraâÂÂin the path to liberation. UmÃÂsvÃÂti prescribed a threefold path of yoga: right conduct/austerity, right knowledge, right faith. UmÃÂsvÃÂti also defined a series of fourteen stages of spiritual development (guá¹ÂasthÃÂna), into which he embedded the fourfold description of dhyana. These stages culminate in the pure activities of body, speech, and mind (sayogi-kevala), and the "cessation of all activity" (ayogi-kevala). UmÃÂsvÃÂti also defined meditation in a new way (as âÂÂekÃÂgra-cintÃÂâÂÂ): "Concentration of thought on a single object by a person with good bone-joints is meditation which lasts an intra-hour (ÃÂ-muhà «rta).â Yet, the TattvÃÂrtha-sà «tra also "states that pure meditation (sukla-dhyÃÂna, e.g. samadhi) is unattainable in the current time-cycle."
Other important figures are Jinabhadra, and Pujyapada Devanandi (wrote the commentary SarvÃÂrthasiddhi).
This period saw new texts specifically on Jain meditation and further Hindu influences on Jain yoga.
This period also sees the elucidation of the practice of contemplation (anupreká¹£ÃÂ) with the VÃÂrassa-aá¹Âuvekkhàor âÂÂTwelve ContemplationsâÂÂ, attributed to Kundakunda (collective authorship, 400-500 CE up to 1100 CE). These twelve forms of reflection (bhÃÂvanÃÂ) aid in the stopping of the influx of karmas that extend transmigration.
In his Niyamasara, Kundakunda, also describes yoga bhaktiâÂÂdevotion to the path to liberationâÂÂas the highest form of devotion.
Haribhadra in the 8th century wrote the meditation compendium called Yogadá¹Âá¹£á¹Âisamuccya which discusses systems of Jain yoga, Patanjali Yoga and Buddhist yoga and develops his own unique system that are somewhat similar to these. ÃÂcÃÂrya Haribhadra assimilated many elements from PatañjaliâÂÂs Yoga-sà «tra into his new Jain yoga (which also has eight parts) and composed four texts on this topic, Yoga-bindu, Yogadá¹Âá¹£á¹Âisamuccaya, Yoga-à Âataka and Yoga-viá¹ à ÂikÃÂ. Johannes Bronkhorst considers Haribhadra's contributions a "far more drastic departure from the scriptures." He worked with a different definition of yoga than previous Jains, defining yoga as "that which connects to liberation" and his works allowed Jainism to compete with other religious systems of yoga.
The first five stages of Haribhadra's yoga system are preparatory and include posture and so on. The sixth stage is kÃÂntà[pleasing] and is similar to Patañjali's "DhÃÂraá¹ÂÃÂ." It is defined as "a higher concentration for the sake of compassion toward others. Pleasure is never found in externals and a beneficial reflection arises. In this state, due to the efficacy of dharma, oneâÂÂs conduct becomes purified. One is beloved among beings and single-mindedly devoted to dharma. (YSD, 163) With mind always fixed on scriptural dharma." The seventh stage is radiance (prabhÃÂ), a state of calmness, purification and happiness as well as "the discipline of conquering amorous passion, the emergence of strong discrimination, and the power of constant serenity." The final stage of meditation in this system is 'the highest' (parÃÂ), a "state of Samadhi in which one becomes free from all attachments and attains liberation." Haribhadra sees this as being in "the category of âÂÂayogaâ (motionlessness), a state which we can compare with the state just prior to liberation."
Acarya Haribhadra (as well as the later thinker Hemacandra) also mentions the five major vows of ascetics and 12 minor vows of laity under yoga. This has led certain Indologists like Prof. Robert J. Zydenbos to call Jainism, essentially, a system of yogic thinking that grew into a full-fledged religion. The five yamas or the constraints of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali bear a resemblance to the five major vows of Jainism, indicating a history of strong cross-fertilization between these traditions.
Later works also provide their own definitions of meditation. The SarvÃÂrthasiddhi of Akalanka (9th c. CE) states "only the knowledge that shines like an unflickering flame is meditation." According to Samani Pratibha Pragya, the TattvÃÂnuà ÂÃÂsana of Ramasena (10th c. CE) states that this knowledge is "many-pointed concentration (vyagra) and meditation is one-pointed concentration (ekÃÂgra)."
This period sees tantric influences on Jain meditation, which can be gleaned in the JñÃÂnÃÂrá¹Âava of à Âubhacandra (11thc. CE), and the Yogaà ÂÃÂstra of Hemacandra (12th c. CE). à Âubhacandra offered a new model of four meditations:
à Âubhacandra also discusses breath control and withdrawal of the mind. Modern scholars such as MahÃÂprajña have noted that this system of yoga already existed in à Âaiva tantra and that à Âubhacandara developed his system based on the Navacakreà Âvara-tantra and that this system is also present in AbhinavaguptaâÂÂs TantrÃÂloka.
The Yogaà ÂÃÂstra of Hemacandra (12th c. CE) closely follows the model of à Âubhacandra. This trend of adopting ideas from the BrÃÂhmaá¹Âical and tantric à Âaiva traditions continues with the work of the later à ÂvetÃÂmbara upÃÂdhyÃÂya Yaà Âovijaya (1624âÂÂ1688), who wrote many works on yoga.
During the 17th century, ÃÂcÃÂrya Vinayavijaya composed the à ÂÃÂnta-sudhÃÂrasabhÃÂvanàin Sanskrit which teaches sixteen anupreká¹£ÃÂ, or contemplations.
The growth and popularity of mainstream Yoga and Hindu meditation practices influenced a revival in various Jain communities, especially in the à ÂvÃÂtÃÂmbara Terapanth order. These systems sought to "promote health and well-being and pacifism, via meditative practices as âÂÂsecularâ nonreligious tools." 20th century Jain meditation systems were promoted as universal systems accessible to all, drawing on modern elements, using new vocabulary designed to appeal to the lay community, whether Jains or non-Jains. It is important to note that these developments happened mainly among à ÂvÃÂtÃÂmbara sects, while Digambara groups generally did not develop new modernist meditation systems. Digambara sects instead promote the practice of self-study (SvÃÂdhyÃÂya) as a form of meditation, influenced by the work of Kundakunda. This practice of self study (reciting scriptures and thinking about the meaning) is included in the practice of equanimity (sÃÂmÃÂyika) which is the spiritual practice emphasized by 20th century Digambara sects.
The modern era saw the rise of a new à ÂvÃÂtÃÂmbara sect, the à ÂvetÃÂmbara Terapanth, founded by ÃÂcÃÂrya Bhiká¹£u (1726âÂÂ1803). Tulasë (1914âÂÂ1997), the ninth Acharya of the Terapanth Sangha, and his student ÃÂcÃÂrya MahÃÂprajña (1920â 2010) sought to rediscover Jain meditation and developed a system termed preká¹£ÃÂ-dhyÃÂna. It includes "meditative techniques of perception, kayotsarg, anupreksha, mantra, posture (ÃÂsana), breath control (prÃÂá¹ÂÃÂyÃÂma), hand and body gestures (mudrÃÂ), various bodily locks (bandha), meditation (dhyÃÂna) and reflection (bhÃÂvanÃÂ)," "intersect[ing] with the global yoga market". Despite the innovations, the meditation system is said to be firmly grounded in the classic Jain metaphysical mind body dualism in which the self (jiva, characterized by consciousness, cetana which consists of knowledge, jñÃÂna and intuition, darà Âana) is covered over by subtle and gross bodies.
Prekṣàmeans "to perceive carefully and profoundly". In preká¹£ÃÂ, perception is an impartial experience bereft of the duality of like and dislike, pleasure and pain, attachment or aversion. Meditative progress proceeds through the different gross and subtle bodies, differentiating between them and the pure consciousness of jiva. MahÃÂprajña interprets the goal of this to mean to âÂÂperceive and realise the most subtle aspects of consciousness by your conscious mind (mana).â Important disciplines in the system are synchrony of mental and physical actions, present-mindedness or complete awareness of one's actions, disciplining the reacting attitude, friendliness, diet, silence, spiritual vigilance.
The prekṣàsystem uses an eight limb hierarchical schema, where each one is necessary for practicing the next:
Contemplation (anupreksa) themes are impermanence, solitariness, and vulnerability. Regular practice is believed to strengthen the immune system and build up stamina to resist against aging, pollution, viruses, diseases. Meditation practice is an important part of the daily lives of the religion's monks.
MahÃÂprajña also taught subsidiary limbs to preká¹£ÃÂ-dhyÃÂna, which would help support the meditations in a holistic manner, these are Preká¹£ÃÂ-yoga (posture and breathing control) and Preká¹£ÃÂ-cikitsà(therapy). Mantras such as Arham are also used in this system.
The Digambara text Pravacanasara, attributed to a Kundakunda but probably the result of multiple authorship over multiple centuries, states that a Jain mendicant should meditate on "I, the pure self." Anyone who considers his body or possessions as "I am this, this is mine" is on the wrong road, while one who meditates, thinking the antithesis and "I am not others, they are not mine, I am one knowledge" is on the right road to meditating on the "soul, the pure self". The texts attributed to Kundakunda inspired two contemporary lay-movements within Jainism with his notion of two truths and his emphasis on direct insight into nià Âcayanaya or âÂÂultimate perspectiveâÂÂ, also called âÂÂsupremeâ (paramÃÂrtha) and âÂÂpureâ (à Âuddha).
Shrimad Rajchandra (1867-1901) was a Jain poet and mystic who was inspired by works of Kundakunda and Digambara mystical tradition. He in turn inspired the Kanji Panth, a lay movement founded by Kanji Swami (1890-1980), and also inspired Dada Bhagwan, Rakesh Jhaveri (Shrimad Rajchandra Mission), Saubhagbhai, Lalluji Maharaj (Laghuraj Swami), Atmanandji and several other religious figures. Bauer notes that "[in] recent years there has been a convergence of the Kanji Swami Panth and the Shrimad Rajcandra movement, part of trend toward a more eucumenical and less sectarian Jainism among educated, mobile Jains living overseas."
CitrabhÃÂnu (1922-2019) was a Jain monk who moved to the West in 1971, and founded the first Jain meditation center in the world, the Jaina Meditation International Centre in New York City. He eventually married and became a lay teacher of a new system called "Jain meditation" (JM), on which he wrote various books. The core of his system consists of three steps (tripadë): 1. who am I? (kohum), 2. I am not that (nahum) (not non-self), 3. I am that (sohum) (I am the self). He also makes use of classic Jain meditations such as the twelve reflections (thought taught in a more optimistic, modern way), Jaina mantras, meditation on the seven chakras, as well as Hatha Yoga techniques.
ÃÂcÃÂrya Suà ÂëlakumÃÂra (1926âÂÂ1994) of the SthÃÂnakavÃÂsë tradition founded âÂÂArhum Yogaâ (Yoga on Omniscient) and established a Jain community called the âÂÂArhat Saá¹ ghaâ in New Jersey in 1974. His meditation system is strongly tantric and employs mantras (mainly the namaskÃÂr), nyasa, visualization and chakras.
The SthÃÂnakavÃÂsë ÃÂcÃÂrya NÃÂnÃÂlÃÂla (1920âÂÂ1999), developed a Jaina meditation called Samëká¹£aá¹Âa-dhyÃÂna (looking at thoroughly, close investigation) in 1981. The main goal of samëká¹£aá¹Âa-dhyÃÂna is the experience of higher consciousness within the self and liberation in this life. Samëká¹£aá¹Âa-dhyÃÂna is classified into two categories: introspection of the passions (kaá¹£ÃÂya samëká¹£aá¹Âa) and samatÃÂ-samëká¹£aá¹Âa, which includes introspection of the senses (indriya samëká¹£aá¹Âa), introspection of the vow (vrata samëká¹£aá¹Âa) introspection of the karma (karma samëká¹£aá¹Âa), introspection of the Self (ÃÂtma samëká¹£aá¹Âa) and others.
Bhadraá¹ karavijaya (1903âÂÂ1975) of the TapÃÂgaccha sect founded âÂÂSÃÂlambana DhyÃÂnaâ (Support Meditation). According to Samani Pratibha Pragya, most of these practices "seem to be a deritualisation of pà «jàin a meditative form, i.e. he recommended the mental performance of pà «jÃÂ." These practices (totally 34 different meditations) focus on meditating on arihantas and can make use of mantras, hymns (stotra), statues (mà «rti) and diagrams (yantra).
ÃÂcÃÂrya à Âivamuni (b. 1942) of the à Âramaá¹Âa Saá¹ gha is known for his contribution of âÂÂÃÂtma DhyÃÂnaâ (Self-Meditation). The focus in this system is directly meditating on the nature of the self, making use of the mantra soâÂÂham and using the ÃÂcÃÂrÃÂá¹ ga Sà «tra as the main doctrinal source.
Muni CandraprabhasÃÂgara (b. 1962) introduced âÂÂSambodhi DhyÃÂnaâ (Enlightenment-Meditation) in 1997. It mainly makes use of the mantra Om, breathing meditation, the chakras and other yogic practices.
According to Jain-tradition, meditation derives from Rishabhanatha, the first tirthankara. Jains believe that all twenty-four Tirthankaras practiced deep meditation, some for years and some for months, and attained enlightenment. All the statues and pictures of Tirthankaras primarily show them in meditative postures.