Kashmir Shaivism is a 20th-century umbrella-term for a body of Sanskrit exegetical literature of non-dual Shaiva-Shakta tantric and monistic religious traditions from Kashmir, "principally the Trika and the Krama," both subschools of the Kaula-tradition. This exegetical tradition developed in Kashmir after 850 CE, as an adaptation to upper-class Hindu norms of 'wild' tantric Kaula traditions, replacing Shaiva Siddhanta as the dominant form of Saivism. It includes the Spanda ('Divine vibration') teachings, and the "Philosophy of Recognition" (PratyabhijñÃÂ) of the Kashmir Trika-school. The term "Kashmir Shaivism" is often used synonymously for the Kashmir Trika-school and it's pratyabhijñàphilosophy.
The Shiva Sutras of Vasugupta (9th c. CE) and the Spanda Karika (9th c. CE) are the central texts of the Spanda system, interpreting Shakti as spanda, "cosmic pulsation" or "divine vibraction", the active and creative energy of Shiva.
Defining features of the Trika tradition are the use of several triades in its philosophy, including the three goddesses ParÃÂ, ParÃÂparÃÂ, and AparÃÂ; and its idealistic and monistic teaching of pratyabhijna ("direct knowledge of one's self," "recognition") philosophical system, propounded by Utpaladeva (c. 925âÂÂ975 CE) and Abhinavagupta (c. 975âÂÂ1025 CE). The main exegetical works of the Trika-tradition are those of Abhinavagupta, such as the Tantraloka, MÃÂlinëà ÂlokavÃÂrttika, and TantrasÃÂra. Another important text of this tradition is the VijñÃÂna-bhairava-tantra, which focuses on outlining numerous yogic practices. Trika Shaivism later spread beyond Kashmir, particularly flourishing in the states of Odisha and Maharashtra.
Kashmir Shaivism is an umbrella-term for several non-dual Shaiva-Shakta tantric religious traditions that flourished in Kashmir after 850 CE, as an adaptation to upper-class Hindu norms of 'wild' tantric Kaula traditions, and include the spanda ('Divine vibration') teachings, and the "Philosophy of Recognition" (PratyabhijñÃÂ) of the Trika-school. Kashmir Shaivism is often used synonymously for the Trika-school and it's "Philosophy of Recognition" (pratyabhijñÃÂ). Trika, named after the use of several triades (trika) in its philosophy, was a subdivision of the Kaula-tradition, probably originated outside Kashmir before 8oo CE, but the pratyabhijñàdeveloped in Kashmir.
Kashmir Shaivism originated in Kashmir after 850 CE, as a domestication of Kaula tantric movements, adapting its views and practices to normative upper-caste Hinduism. As Lawrence notes, " Radical practices were toned down, concealed under the guise of propriety, or interpreted as metaphors of internal contemplations."
One result of this domestication-process was the composition, by monistic Saivite Brahmins, of "increasingly systematic manuals of doctrines and practices on the model of Sanskrit scholastic texts (shÃÂstras). This textual development began with the Shiva Sutras of Vasugupta (9th cent. CE) and the SpandakÃÂrikÃÂ (9th cent. CE), which are the central texts of the Spanda system, interpreting Shakti as spanda, "cosmic pulsation" or "divine vibraction", the active and creative energy of Shiva.
The Shiva Sutras appeared to Vasugupta in a dream, according to tradition. The SpandakÃÂrikàwas either composed by Vasugupta (c. 800-850 CE) or his student Bhatta Kallata (9th cent. CE). These were a à ÂÃÂkta à Âaiva attempt to present a non-dualistic metaphysics and gnostic soteriology, in opposition to the dualistic exegesis of the Meykandar school of Shaiva Siddhanta, while remaining in agreement with the monistic view expressed in the older and arguably more authoritative Tirumantiram of Tirumular.
While Trika draws from numerous Shaiva texts, such as the Shaiva Agamas and the Shaiva and Shakta Tantras, its major scriptural authorities are the MÃÂlinëvijayottara Tantra, the Siddhayogeà Âvarëmata and the AnÃÂmaka-tantra. The main theologians of Trika Shaivism are those of the Pratyabhijñà(Recognition) school of Shaiva non-dual philosophy.
SomÃÂnanda (875-925) wrote the à Âivadråṣá¹Âi, "the first work of full-fledged scholastic philosophy" of the Trika school. Utpaladeva (c. 900âÂÂ950 CE) and Abhinavagupta (c. 950âÂÂ1016, a student of one of Utpaladeva's disciples) developed the PratyabhijñÃÂ-system into its mature form. Utpaladeva's êà ÂvarapratyabhijñÃÂ-kÃÂrikà(Verses on the Recognition of the Lord) is one of the main works of this tradition, but was overshadowed by the work of Abhinavagupta. Thus, according to Torella, "Abhinavagupta's êà ÂvarapratyabhijñÃÂ-Vimarà Âinë and the êà ÂvarapratyabhijñÃÂ-VivrÃÂ¥ti-Vimarà Âinë (a commentary on UtpaladevaâÂÂs VivrÃÂ¥ti on his own êà ÂvarapratyabhijñÃÂ-KÃÂrikàand VrÃÂ¥tti) are generally considered the standard works of the PratyabhijñÃÂ." Torella notes however, that "most of AbhinavaguptaâÂÂs ideas are just the development of what Utpaladeva had already expounded."
Abhinavagupta was initiated in the sampradayas (lineages) of the Trika, PratyabhijñÃÂ, the Kaula Krama, and Shaiva Siddhantha, and also self-studied that spanda-system. Abhinavagupta wrote numerous other works on Shaiva tantra. His TantrÃÂloka, MÃÂlinëà ÂlokavÃÂrttika, and TantrasÃÂra are mainly based on the MÃÂlinëvijayottara Tantra, although they also drew heavily on the Kali-based Krama tradition of the KulamÃÂrga. Abhinavagupta's TantrÃÂloka is probably his most important work. According to Christopher Wallis, "the TantrÃÂloka is a monumental explication of Tantrik practice and philosophy in over 5,800 verses. It is encyclopedic in its scope though not organized like an encyclopedia, for instead of just enumerating theories and practices, it brings them all into a coherent framework in which everything has its place and everything makes sense in relation to the whole."
One of Abhinavagupta's students, Kshemaraja, is also an important figure who authored the short PratyabhijñÃÂhá¹Âdayam (The Essence of Self-Recognition).
Jayaratha (1150âÂÂ1200 CE) wrote a commentary on the TantrÃÂloka.
After 1200 CE, the institutional basis and support for the Shaiva and Buddhist Tantric tradition mostly disappeared with Islamic conquests of the region leading to the slow decline and contraction of the tradition, though especially the Kaula-influenced lineages continued to be passed down and practiced by wandering ascetics well into the 18th century, due to their non-institutionalized structure.
The number of major writers and publications declined after approximately the 14th century, although writers such as RÃÂjÃÂnaka ÃÂnanda Kavi, Anantaà ÂaktipÃÂda, à ÂivopÃÂdhyÃÂya, BhÃÂskarakaá¹Âá¹Âha, RÃÂjÃÂnaka Laká¹£mërÃÂma, and Harabhaá¹Âá¹Âa à ÂÃÂstri continued to produce important commentaries on core Kashmiri Shaiva texts into the early 20th century.
In the 20th century Lakshman Joo, a Kashmiri Hindu, helped revive both the scholarly and yogic streams of Kashmir Shaivism. His contribution is enormous. He inspired a generation of scholars who made Kashmir Shaivism a legitimate field of inquiry within the academy.
Acharya Rameshwar Jha, is often credited with establishing the roots of Kashmir Shaivism in the learned community of Varanasi. Rameshwar Jha with his creativity, familiarity with the ancient texts and personal experiences provided access to concepts of non-dualistic Kashmir Shaivism. His writings of Sanskrit verses have been published as the books Purnta Pratyabhijna and Samit Swatantram.
Lilian Silburn (1908âÂÂ1993) was a French Indologist specialising in Kashmir Shaivism, Tantra and Buddhism. Working together with Louis Renou, she translated from Sanskrit and published the core scriptures of Kashmir Shaivism, including Shiva Sutras of Vasugupta, Vijnana Bhairava Tantra, and others, many being first-ever translations of the recently discovered texts. Silburn, a student of Lakshman Joo, authored Kundalini: The Energy of the Depths, A Comprehensive Study Based on the Scriptures of Kasmir Saivism (Shaiva Traditions of Kashmir, State University of New York Press, 1988).
Swami Muktananda, although not belonging to the direct lineage of Kashmir Shaivism, felt an affinity for the teachings, validated by his own direct experience. He encouraged Motilal Banarsidass to publish Jaideva Singh's translations of Shiva Sutras, Pratyabhijnahrdayam, Spanda Karikas and Vijnana Bhairava, all of which Singh studied in-depth with Lakshman Joo. He also introduced Kashmir Shaivism to a wide audience of western meditators through his writings and lectures on the subject.
The Vijnana Bhairava Tantra, a chapter from the Rudrayamala Tantra, was introduced to the West by Paul Reps, a student of Lakshman Joo, by including an English translation in his book Zen Flesh, Zen Bones. Cast as a discourse between the god Shiva and his consort Devi or Shakti, it presents 112 meditation methods or centering techniques (dharanas).
The four key Trika mandalas from AbhinavaguptaâÂÂs TantrÃÂloka, previously considered indecipherable, were translated, decoded and illustrated by Christian de Vietri in his 2024 book titled Trika Maá¹Âá¸Âala PrakÃÂà Âa.
In general, the whole written tradition of Kashmir Shaivism can be divided in three fundamental parts: ÃÂgama à ÂÃÂstra, Spanda à ÂÃÂstra and Pratyabhijñàà ÂÃÂstra.
1. ÃÂgama à ÂÃÂstra are those writings that are considered as being a direct revelation from Siva. These writings were first communicated orally, from the master to the worthy disciple. They include essential works such as ', ', ', ', ', ', à Âivasà «tra (Shiva Sutra of Vasugupta) and others. There are also numerous commentaries to these works, ' having most of them.
2. ', the main work of which is ' of Bhatta Kallata, a disciple of Vasugupta, with its many commentaries. Out of them, two are of major importance: ' (this commentary talks only about the first verses of '), and ' (which is a commentary of the complete text).
3. Pratyabhijñàà ÂÃÂstra are those writings which have mainly a metaphysical content. Due to their extremely high spiritual and intellectual level, this part of the written tradition of Shaivism is the least accessible for the uninitiated. Nevertheless, this corpus of writings refers to the simplest and most direct modality of spiritual realization. Pratyabhijñàmeans "recognition" and refers to the spontaneous recognition of the divine nature hidden in each human being (atman). The most important works in this category are: ', the fundamental work of Utpaladeva, and ', a commentary to '. ' means in fact the direct recognition of the Lord (êà Âvara) as identical to one's Heart. Before Utpaladeva, his master SomÃÂnanda wrote ' (The Vision of Siva), a poem written on multiple levels of meaning.
According to Mark S. G. Dyczkowski, Kashmiri Trika Shaivism looks to three scriptures "as its primary authorities", the MÃÂlinëvijayottara Tantra, the Siddhayogeà Âvarëmata and the AnÃÂmaka-tantra.
As a monistic tantric system, Trika Shaivism, as it is also known, draws teachings from shrutis, such as the monistic Bhairava Tantras, Shiva Sutras of Vasugupta, and also a unique version of the which has a commentary by Abhinavagupta, known as the Gitartha Samgraha. Teachings are also drawn from the TantrÃÂloka of Abhinavagupta, prominent among a vast body of smritis employed by Kashmir Shaivism.
The spanda-philosophy regards consciousness as active and dynamic, described as the spontaneous vibration or pulsation (spanda) of universal consciousness, which is an expression of its freedom (svÃÂtÃÂntrya) and power (Ã Âakti). Because of this, though this philosophy is idealist, it affirms the reality of the world and everyday life, as a real transformation (parinama), manifestation or appearance (ÃÂbhÃÂsa) of the absolute consciousness. The Absolute is also explained through the metaphor of light (prakasha) and reflective awareness (vimarsha).
An important element of Trika Shaivism's theology is the use of several triads (symbolized by the trident) in its description of Absolute and phenomenal reality, hence the name trika.
Central to Trika Shaivism is PratyabhijñÃÂ, "recognition." Etymologically, pratyabhijñàis formed from prati- ("re-") + abhi- ("closely") + *jñà("to know"), so the meaning is "direct knowledge of one's self," "recognition."
The central thesis of this philosophy is that everything is a manifestation or unfolding of absolute consciousness, termed à Âiva, and it is possible to "re-cognise" this fundamental reality and be freed from limitations, identified with à Âiva and immersed in bliss. Thus, the slave (paà Âu: the human condition) shakes off the fetters (pÃÂà Âa) and becomes the master (pati: the divine condition).
Pratyabhijna, the 'philosophy of recognition', as outlined by thinkers like Utpaladeva, teaches that though the identity of all souls is one with God (Isvara) or Shiva (which is the single reality, Being and absolute consciousness), they have forgotten this due to Maya or ignorance. However, through knowledge one can recognize one's authentic divine nature and become a liberated being.
The basic theology of Trika's Recognition school, as summarised by Utpaladeva in êà ÂvarapratyabhijñÃÂ-KÃÂrikà(Verses on the Recognition of the Lord), is as follows:
The school's theology is expressed by Kshemaraja in his PratyabhijñÃÂ-há¹Âdayam (The Heart of Recognition) as follows:
In Kashmir Shivaism the highest form of Kali is Kalasankarshini who is nirguna, formless and is often show as a flame above the head of Guhya Kali the highest gross form of Kali. In Nepali Newar arts, both form and formless attributes of Kali is often envisioned in a single art form showing the hierarchy of goddesses in their tradition. In it Guhyakali image culminates in flame, with Kalasankarshini, the highest deity in the sequence, who consumes time within herself and is envisioned solely as a flame representing Para Brahman.
Shaiva Siddhanta was a northern, especially Kashmi development. While Kashmir Shaivism developed in opposition to the dualistic Shaiva Siddhanta tradition, it shares many parallel points of agreement with the lesser-known monistic school of Shaiva Siddhanta as expressed in the Tirumantiram of Tirumular. It shares this branch's disagreements with the dualistic Shaiva Siddhanta school of Meykandar, which scholars consider to be normative tantric Shaivism.
The doctrines of Kashmir Shaivism were very influential on the Shri Vidya tradition of Shaktism.
Kashmir Shaivism and Advaita Vedanta are both non-dual philosophies that recognize Universal Consciousness (Chit or Brahman), but have different views on the relation between this highest Reality and the phenomenal world. In Advaita Vedanta, only this consciousness (Brahman) is ultimately Real, whereas the phenomenal world is considered to be Maya, illusion, creating a fundamental ontological problem. In Kashmir Shaivism, all things are a manifestation of this Consciousness, and the phenomenal world (Ã Âakti) is real, existing and having its being in Consciousness (Chit).
Jaideva Singh lists seven key differences between Advaita and Kashmir Shaivism, where in Kashmir Shaivism,