The Vià ÂuddhaprabhàDhÃÂraá¹Âë (DhÃÂraá¹Âë of Pure Light), also known by its full title Raà Âmi-vimala-vià ÂuddhaprabhÃÂ-dhÃÂraá¹Âë (The DhÃÂraá¹Âë of the Pure Stainless Light Rays; Chinese: Wugou Jing Guang Da Tuoluoni ç¡å¢淨å Â大éÂÂç¾ å°¼, T 1024), is a Buddhist ritual text belonging to the dhÃÂraá¹Âë genre of protective and transformative formulas. This text is preserved in multiple versions and sutras within the Tibetan Kanjur and Chinese Buddhist canons. The dhÃÂraá¹Âë centers on the worship of AmitÃÂyuá¹£ (the Buddha of Infinite Life) and the invocation of Vià Âuddhaprabhà(Pure Light), a goddess which personifies Amida's compassionate light. Its main function is the purification of karma, healing, the extension of lifespan (ÃÂyuá¹£), and the assurance of rebirth in SukhÃÂvatë, Amida's Pure Land. This dhÃÂraá¹Âë was cited by the Japanese Pure Land Buddhist scholar Genshin as part of thirteen texts conducive to birth in the Pure Land.
The Vià ÂuddhaprabhàDhÃÂraá¹Âë became popular during the 8th century, and it quickly spread throughout East Asia due to the use of woodblock printing. It was widely employed in Korean Buddhism during the middle and late Silla (668âÂÂ935), as well as in Japan during the same time. The Great DhÃÂraá¹Âë Sà «tra, a Korean copy of the DhÃÂraá¹Âë, is considered to be one of the oldest printed texts in the world.
The Vià ÂuddhaprabhàDhÃÂraá¹Âë is part of the DhÃÂraá¹Âë genre, an important class of Buddhist text in India and beyond. A core theme in these works is the idea that a dhÃÂraá¹Âë contains the accumulated blessings of the buddhas. Consequently, constructing a stà «pa and enshrining within it a promoted dhÃÂraá¹Âë is said to generate merit equivalent to building stà «pas for a buddha relic. Etymologically linked to the Sanskrit root âÂÂdhá¹ and the word dhÃÂraá¹Âa, the term conveys meanings of holding, retaining, and memory. One of its primary functions is to assist in memorizing Buddhist teaching. Beyond this mnemonic role, dhÃÂraá¹Âës also serve protective and soteriological aims, since they were seen as promoting the ability to remember the Dharma and to contain special powers.
The Vià ÂuddhaprabhàDhÃÂraá¹Âë<nowiki/>'s transmission from India to East Asia illustrates the dynamics of medieval Buddhist exchange. The dhÃÂraá¹Âë initially arrived in the Kingdom of Khotan from India, where it was copied at Gomatë Monastery, which was a stronghold of the Buddhism in Central Asia. The Khotanese title of the dhÃÂraá¹Âë is Nirmala-vibhÃÂsa-koá¹Âi-parià Âuddha SarvatathÃÂgata-samast-ÃÂà ÂÃÂ-pratiá¹£á¹Âhita-mudrÃÂ, which Lokesh Chandra translates to "Meditation for consummating all oneâÂÂs wishes by the supremely pure immaculate radiance of the Omnipotent TathÃÂgata", translating mudrÃÂ-dhÃÂraá¹Âë as "dhÃÂraá¹Âë for meditation." Furthermore, according to Chandra, Nirmala-vibhÃÂsa-koá¹Âi-parià Âuddha refers to AmitÃÂbha Buddha, the Buddha of Infinite Light.
The dhÃÂraá¹Âë sutra was translated into Chinese in 704 CE by the monk Mituoshan (possibly *Mitraà ÂÃÂnta, or *Mitrasena) and the prominent Huayan master Fazang during the final year of Empress Wu Zetian's reign. Chandra writes that Mituoshan simplified the title in Chinese to ç¡å¢淨å Â大éÂÂç¾ å°¼ç¶Â: Wu-kou (vimala) ching (vià Âuddha) kuang (prabhÃÂ) ta tâÂÂo-lo-ni (mahÃÂ-dhÃÂraá¹Âë) ching (sà «tra).
Mitrasena presented it at the court of Empress Wu Zetian (r. 690 to 705) of the Tang Dynasty. The Empress, seriously ill and seeking both healing and a favorable rebirth, became a key patron of the text, and many copies were made and ritually enshrined during her reign. Research suggests the sà «tra may have been disseminated throughout East Asia as part of a relics-distribution campaign intended to serve as a propaganda tool for Empress Wu's dynasty. After Wu Zetian's death, her son Emperor Zhongzong disseminated printed copies of the dhÃÂraá¹Âë widely around China and in neighboring states in an effort to purify her karma and provide her with a good rebirth as well as pacify the nation. The text was also inscribed on dhÃÂraá¹Âë pillars. The text spread throughout East Asia quickly, reaching Korea in a few years, where it was used for similar ritual purposes. The most famous Korean example of the text is the Great DhÃÂraá¹Âë Sà «tra of Bulguksa (see below).
The dhÃÂraá¹Âë saw another major wave of promotion in 8th-century Japan under Empress Kà Âken (r. 749âÂÂ758; 764âÂÂ770). Following a period of political struggle and depression, she commissioned the production of one million miniature wooden pagodas (Hyakumantà Â), each containing a printed scroll of the dhÃÂraá¹Âë, in a monumental act of merit-making that sought to secure her health, political authority, and karmic destiny. These events cemented the text's reputation as an especially potent rite for those facing illness, old age, or political peril. Empress Kà Âken's Hyakumantà  Darani project in the 760s-770s represents one of the world's earliest large-scale printing endeavors, predating the Diamond Sà «tra. Thousands of these printed dhÃÂraá¹Âë slips survive in Japanese temple collections like Hà Âryà «-ji, providing crucial evidence for early printing technology. The text also inspired artistic and architectural programs, with its descriptions of multi-tiered, multi-cakra pillars influencing stà «pa design in East Asia. It remains studied as a prime example of how Buddhist ritual practices were mobilized for personal, political, and communal ends in medieval Asia.
A second and longer version of the dhÃÂraá¹Âë sutra was translated translated by Shihu (Skt. DÃÂnapÃÂla?) between 982 and 1017.
The text was also translated into Tibetan and is contained in the Tibetan Kangyur under the KriyÃÂtantra section with the title 'Od zer dri ma med pa rnam par dag pa'i gzungs (Toh 510 / 982). It is still used as a ritual text in Tibetan Buddhism, mainly for the construction and consecration of stupas.
The Vià ÂuddhaprabhàdhÃÂraá¹Âës are found in several versions. The Sà «tra of the Great DhÃÂraá¹Âë of Pure Stainless Light Rays (Ch: ç¡å¢淨å Â大éÂÂç¾ å°¼ç¶Â) is text number 1024 in the Taisho Tripitaka. This sutra was translated into Chinese by the Indian monk Mitrasena in 704 CE. Set in Kapilavastu, the narrative begins with a Brahmin named Jiebiluozhancha å«æ¯Âç¾ æ°è¶ (*Kapilacanda?), who is prophesied to die in seven days and descend into the Avëci Hell. Seeking refuge in the Buddha, he is instructed to repair an ancient, ruined stupa, deposit specific sacred formulas in it and chant dhÃÂraá¹Âë. This framework establishes the sutra's primary concern with death, pure land rebirth, karmic purification, illness and life extension, which is tied to ritual incantations and the worship of stupas. In particular, rebirth in the Pure Land of Sukhavati is mentioned four times in the sutra.
Ritually, the Vià ÂuddhaprabhàDhÃÂraá¹Âë is structured as a complete system for the construction, consecration, and use of a stà «pa or ritual pillar (yaá¹£á¹Âi/dhvaja). The canonical Chinese version of the DhÃÂraá¹Âë Sà «tra contains seven distinct dhÃÂraá¹Âës, each with a specific liturgical function: (1) a root mantra for purification and life-extension; (2) a formula for sanctifying the central pillar (yaá¹£á¹Âi) which absent in the Tibetan versions; (3) a dhÃÂraá¹Âë for repairing a damaged pillar; (4) for the sanctification of the pillar linked to the bodhisattva Sarvanëvaraá¹Âaviá¹£kambhin; (5) an invocation for worship at the consecrated site; (6) a concluding rite (visarjana) of farewell to the invoked goddess; and (7) a reiterated great dhÃÂraá¹Âë. DhÃÂraá¹Âë 7 is a "mahÃÂdhÃÂraá¹Âë" which is very similar to the first dhÃÂraá¹Âë with a few minor variations. The Tibetan version of the sutra has six dhÃÂraá¹Âës (the text calls them mantras, Tib. sá¹ ags).
According to Chandra, the number seven is symbolic, seven being associated with the sun deity in Indian thought, who is called SaptÃÂà Âva âÂÂhaving seven horsesâ in the Rigveda, and Saptasapti in the MahÃÂbhÃÂrata. In the Brahmanas, the sun is "that which shines, protects everything" (Skt. ya eá¹£a tapaty eá¹£a hëdaá¹ sarvaá¹ gopÃÂyati), it is "the soul of all the gods" (devÃÂnÃÂm ÃÂtmÃÂ), the sun "is life" (prÃÂá¹Âa-ÃÂdityaḥ), and "saves us from evil" (pÃÂpmano âÂÂpahantÃÂ). In a Buddhist context, the solar imagery signifies the light of Amitabha Buddha and its salvific power. Furthermore, Chandra adds that "the seventh dhÃÂraá¹Âë in the Chinese sutra begins with a salutation to sapta-saptati âÂÂseventy-sevenâ in the Siddham script....Sapta-saptati seems to be an error for Saptasapti which means Sun in the MahÃÂbhÃÂrata and kÃÂvyas." Thus, the dhÃÂraá¹Âë may have originally referred to Amitabha by an epithet of the Indian sun god.
The root dhÃÂraá¹Âë (or mà «la-mantra), which is the first one presented in the sutra, is the following: <blockquote>namo saptasaptatibhyaḥ àsamyak-sambuddha-koá¹ÂënÃÂm àparià Âuddha-mÃÂnasa-vÃÂk-citta-pratiá¹£á¹ÂhitÃÂnÃÂm ÃÂ
namo bhagavate amitÃÂyuá¹£asya tathÃÂgatasya ÃÂ
oá¹ tathÃÂgata-à Âuddhe ÃÂyur-vià Âodhani saá¹Âhara-saá¹Âhara ÃÂ
SarvatathÃÂgata-vërya-balena pratisaá¹Âhara ÃÂyu àsmara-smara SarvatathÃÂgata-samayaá¹ ÃÂ
bodhi-bodhi budhya vibudhya bodhaya-bodhaya ÃÂ
sarva-pÃÂpa-ÃÂvaraá¹Âa-vià Âuddhe vigata-mara-bhayaá¹ subuddha-buddhe àhulu hulu svÃÂhàÃÂ</blockquote><blockquote>Translation: Salutation to the Seventy-seven of the Supreme (koá¹Âi) Perfectly Enlightened Ones, worshipped with purity of the mind, speech, and conscience. Salutation to Lord AmitÃÂyuá¹£a TathÃÂgata. Om. You purified by the TathÃÂgata, purify my life, sustain [me]. Sustain [my] life by virtue of the powers of the Omnipotent TathÃÂgata (i.e., AmitÃÂyuá¹£a). Think of the vow of the Omnipotent TathÃÂgata. You the Enlightenment, being enlightened, enlighten me. You are purified of all sins and ailments, make me devoid of the dread of death and supremely enlightened. Hasten, hasten, svÃÂhÃÂ. </blockquote>According to the sutra, those who hear the first dhÃÂraá¹Âë will eliminate the evil karma from the five evil acts as well as "flaws caused by jealously, arrogance, greed, envy, and so forth," and their lifespan will also be extended. Birth in the Pure Land of Amitabha is also a key benefit. The sutra also attributes apotropaic and protective powers to the physical presence of the dhÃÂraá¹Âë. The Buddha explains that kingdoms which contains stupas with copies of these dhÃÂraá¹Âë will be shielded from evil creatures (like raksasa, yaksas, etc.) invaders, thieves, disease, and disasters. These kingdoms will be protected by the four heavenly kings and other Buddhist deities. This dhÃÂraá¹Âë can also protect the nation from all sorts of troubles. Regarding the second dhÃÂraá¹Âë, the sutra states that it can help the sick and the dying, and it describes a ritual used for this purpose. The deity Vinayaka is associated with this ritual. The third dhÃÂraá¹Âë, called the âÂÂwheeled canopy or finial dhÃÂraá¹Âë â (Ch. xianglun tuoluoni, Kor. sangnyuntarani ç¸輪éÂÂç¾ å°¼), can purify the kleshas, extend lifespan and lead to rebirth in Sukhavati. The fourth dhÃÂraá¹Âë helps with purification and spiritual development, and the sutra promotes the extensive mental chanting of the fourth dhÃÂraá¹Âë.
A central motif found in all dhÃÂraá¹Âës is that they all invoke the feminine deity Vià Âuddhaprabhà("Pure Radiance"), who is asked to purify afflictions and obstacles. All seven texts invoke this deity with a feminine vocative like "ÃÂyur-vià Âodhani" in the above text. The motif of light rays (raà Âmi-prabhÃÂ) evokes the sun-like rays of Buddha Amida's body, here personified as a feminine deity. Chandra writes that "Vià Âuddha-prabhàâÂÂPure Radianceâ is a deification of the raà Âmi which have been invoked since the Vedic period: Raà Âmi-pavitra âÂÂpurified with raysâ occurs in the Taittirëya-brÃÂhmaá¹Âa. She is invoked in the first five dhÃÂraá¹Âës in the vocative case. She is immaculately pure, redeems all sins, and commutes all physical ailments and mental afflictions." Furthermore, according to Chandra, "she is the epiphany of the Omnipotent TathÃÂgata AmitÃÂyuá¹£a. The worshipper invokes Her in the imperative mood, e.g., sara-sara âÂÂhasten, hastenâ to bless me. At times the vocative stands for the imperative, e.g., ÃÂyur-pÃÂlani (short ÃÂi for vocative) means âÂÂgrant me along lifeâÂÂ, adhiá¹£á¹Âhite âÂÂYou the blessed oneâ stands for âÂÂplease bless meâÂÂ."
In its conclusion, the Buddha entrusts the dhÃÂraá¹Âë to a host of celestial guardians, including VajrapÃÂá¹Âi and the Four Heavenly Kings, commanding them to "protect and hold it, carrying it in a jewel casket upon your shoulders." This underscores the high value placed on the physical text as a "treasury of the sublime Dharma."
The rituals discussed in the sutra involves inscribing or printing the dhÃÂraá¹Âës, placing them in the stà «pa's hollow base or pillar, which transforms the monument into a field of merit. Then the main practice of circumambulating the stà «pa while chanting the main dhÃÂraá¹Âë for seventy seven times is taught. This practice should be accomplished on the eighth, thirteenth, fourteenth, and fifteenth days of the month, following the Indian lunar calendar. The sutra also mentions the making of an altar where the dhÃÂraá¹Âë is to be copied seventy seven times. These copies should then be enshrined in the stupa after a puja done with incense, flowers and food. It also teaches the production of seventy seven small clay stupas where copies of the dhÃÂraá¹Âë should be enshrined. The text also promises that "if one writes seventy-seven copies of this mantra and places them in seventy-seven small clay stupas," the practitioner can avert imminent death and secure rebirth in the Pure Land of SukhÃÂvatë. Various rituals associated with the different dhÃÂraá¹Âës are further described throughout the sutra. The text also declares that "where this mantra exists, the TathÃÂgata is present," effectively equating the written formula with the living presence of the Buddha. This belief transformed the landscape of medieval East Asia, as stupas were erected as spiritual fortifications for both the state and the common people.
According to Richard D. McBride II, the widespread use of the Vià ÂuddhaprabhàDhÃÂraá¹Âë should not be interpreted as evidence of Mantrayana or Esoteric Buddhism. McBride has critiqued the problematic tendency in Buddhist studies to classify any text containing dhÃÂraá¹Âës as inherently âÂÂesoteric.â McBride sees this as an anachronistic view that does not reflect the historical reality of medieval Sinitic Buddhism. He asserts that there is little evidence for self-identified, distinct Esoteric Buddhism in Silla Korea or in the sutra itself, and that practices involving dhÃÂraá¹Âës were a mainstream component of MahÃÂyÃÂna Buddhism rather than a separate esoteric tradition.
McBride notes that the sutra text prescribes rituals for practical and worldly benefits, such as eradicating bad karma, prolonging life, curing illness, ensuring rebirth in a heaven or the Pure Land, and protecting the state. While these rituals involve constructing altars and making offerings, they lack the defining features of Mantrayana, such as the ritual recreation of the Buddha's body, speech, and mind (the three mysteries), secret initiations (abhiá¹£eka), maá¹Âá¸Âalas, or meditation under a guru's guidance. McBride argues that the Silla elite's adoption of this dhÃÂraá¹Âë was used for public, merit-making rituals tied to stà «pa construction, not for esoteric cultivation. Copies of the scripture were enshrined in stà «pas dedicated to royal ancestors, and its instructions for building numerous small stà «pas were meticulously followed, as seen in discoveries at sites like Hwangnyong Monastery. This widespread, public use contrasts sharply with the secretive, initiatory character of Tantrism. Thus, the Sà «tra of the Great DhÃÂraá¹Âë of Pure Stainless Light Rays represents what McBride terms âÂÂpractical Buddhist thaumaturgyâÂÂ, a kind of Buddhist magic aimed at solving religious concerns.
Archaeological findings suggest that Korean elites in the Silla kingdom followed ritual procedures similar to those described in the Mahayana dhÃÂraá¹Âë sà «tras like the Vià ÂuddhaprabhÃÂ. These practices were likely adopted from China. Silla rulers constructed impressive wooden and stone stupas during the sixth through eighth centuries, including notable structures at major monasteries in their capital. During the eighth century, Silla monarchs used the Vià ÂuddhaprabhàDhÃÂraá¹Âë Sà «tra as a means of demonstrating filial devotion to their deceased relatives while accumulating merit. One significant example involves King Sà Ângdà Âk, who in 706 placed buddha relics, a gold statue, and the dhÃÂraá¹Âë text within a three-story stupa at Hwangbok Monastery to honor his grandparents and father. The royal family's quick adoption of this newly translated scripture suggests close connections with the Chinese translation bureau and indicates the text's special importance to them.
Throughout the Silla period and beyond, the Vià ÂuddhaprabhàDhÃÂraá¹Âë remained central to Korean Buddhist ritual practice, as evidenced by numerous inscriptions and archaeological discoveries of stupas containing the text. Multiple sites across Korea featured stupas named after the scripture, containing either the text itself or groups of ninety-nine or seventy-seven miniature stupas as prescribed in the dhÃÂraá¹Âë's instructions. Notable examples include the 872 renovation of the nine-story pagoda at Hwangnyong Monastery and various other monastic sites through the late ninth century. The scripture's continued importance extended well into subsequent dynasties, demonstrating its enduring role in Korean Buddhist tradition long after interest in the text diminished in China and Japan.
A woodblock printed copy of the Vià ÂuddhaprabhàDhÃÂraá¹Âë Sà «tra, known as the Great DhÃÂraá¹Âë Sà «tra (K: Mugujà Ânggwang Taedaranigyà Âng, 무구ì Âê´ÂëÂÂë¤ë¼ëÂÂê²½, Ch: ç¡å¢淨å Â大éÂÂç¾ å°¼ç¶Â) was discovered on October 13, 1966, during repairs of Seokgatap (the three-storied pagoda) in Bulguksa which is located in South Korea. Joseph Needham assumed it was made between 684 and 704, but since the Vià ÂuddhaprabhàDhÃÂraá¹Âë Sà «tra was translated into Chinese from Sanskrit in 704, and Bulguksa was built in 751, it is assumed that it was built between the two periods, and is considered to be one of the oldest woodblock prints (on hanji) in the world.
This Great DhÃÂraá¹Âë scroll demonstrates sophisticated printing techniques, and the presence of special characters created by Empress Wu has fueled discussions about whether it was produced in Korea or China. The text contains Chinese characters of Empress Wu which were used only when the Tang dynasty of China was ruling, so it is acknowledged to have been printed before Seokgatap was repaired. However, The Great DhÃÂraá¹Âë Sà «tra contains the character ç §, which is part of Empress Wu's name, indicating that it was produced in a location far from Tang dynasty. It is currently designated as National Treasure No. 126-6.
In 1966, a bundle of paper known as the "ink sheet (墨æ¸ç´ÂçÂÂ)" was found. This document was preserved in 1988âÂÂ89, and in 1997âÂÂ98 it was separated into 110 pages. It was interpreted in 2005 and 2007, and caused a controversy over the production age of the Great DhÃÂraá¹Âë Sà «tra.
The Seokgatap pagoda, where the text was found, is an East Asian stupa, traditionally built as a sacred tower which is filled with sari relics, which sanctify the structure. The relics are divided into the sinsari (the relics of the Buddha) and the bubsari (the scripture relics). The scripture which was largely prevalent in the Unified Silla period is the "Mugujeonggwang Daedaranigyeong (ç¡å¢淨å Â大éÂÂç¾ å°¼ç¶Â)" translated from Chinese in 704. This scripture states that when building or repairing a tower, it is necessary to use 99 or 77 bundles of darani to put it in a small mud-tower and seal it in, which extends the life span and extinguishes all sins. In 706, the royal family of Silla implemented the contents of this scripture in the memorial service for the king of the fleet, and in the sari locker to enter into the tower of Hwangbok for the temporal king. In other words, it depicts 99 small towers on the surface of the sari enclosure to bless the sari. After the 9th century, the expression of these small towers was established as a sari locker method that encircles 99 or 77 small towers containing Darani and spreads to the whole area of Unified Silla.
The Great DhÃÂraá¹Âë Sà «tra consists of 12 sheets of paper, totalling 620 cm in length and 8 cm in height. Each line contains around 8 characters. The first sheet has 56 rows and its size is 56.8 cm. The second sheet has 55 rows and its size is 53.8 cm. The third sheet has 55 rows and its size is 53.2 cm. The fourth sheet has 57 rows and its size is 52.9 cm. The fifth sheet has 56 rows and its size is 54.5 cm. The sixth sheet has 62 rows and its size is 55.1 cm. The seventh sheet has 61 rows and its size is 54.3 cm. The eighth sheet has 59 rows and its size is 55.6 cm. The ninth sheet has 60 rows and its size is 55 cm. The tenth sheet has 63 rows and its size is 54.2 cm. The eleventh sheet has 61 rows and its size is 53.9 cm. The twelfth sheet has 38 rows and its size is 43.9 cm.
A microscopic examination revealed that the papers of The Great Dharani Sutra were made as hanji, which is the traditional Korean paper handmade from mulberry trees.
As the book is considered the oldest surviving woodblock print in the world, it is the source of claims by some Korean scholars that printing was invented in Korea. This has been criticized by Chinese and Japanese historians while other Korean scholars have advised caution towards the claims. Archaeological discoveries since 1966 have pushed the existence of extant woodblock prints earlier in China, including a printed Sanskrit dharani charm in Xi'an dated to the mid-7th century and a printed Lotus Sutra dated between 690 and 699 in Turpan. The Lotus Sutra in Turpan contains the same set of Chinese characters specific to the reign of Wu Zetian as the Great Dharani Sutra in Korea. Historian Pan Jixing notes that some Korean scholars have ignored these discoveries. However, The Great Dharani Sutra contains the character ç §, which is part of Empress Wu's name, indicating that it was produced in a location far from Tang dynasty.
The Japanese , or the "One Million Pagodas and Dharani Prayers", are a series of Vià ÂuddhaprabhàDhÃÂraá¹Âës that were printed on paper and then rolled up and housed in miniature pagodas. Although woodblock-printed books from Chinese Buddhist temples were seen in Japan as early as the 8th century, the Hyakumantà  Darani are the earliest surviving examples of printing in Japan and, alongside the Korean Great DhÃÂraá¹Âë Sà «tra, are considered to be some of the world's oldest existent printed matter.
There are various theories around Shà Âtoku's motives for commissioning the Hyakumantà  Darani. One is that of remorse and thanksgiving for the suppression of the Emi Rebellion of 764, and another is as an assertion of power and control over resources, but the act could equally serve both political and devotional aims. Either it was felt that printing as a technology had served its ritual purpose through the creation of the Hyakumantà  Darani, or simply that the cost of this mass production proved prohibitive, but printing technology did not become widespread until the tenth century and the production, and distribution of books continued to rely heavily on hand-copying manuscripts.
The production of the Hyakumantà  Darani was a huge undertaking. In the year of her resumption of the throne, 764, the Empress Shà Âtoku commissioned the one million small wooden pagodas (, each containing a small piece of paper (typically 6 x 45 cm) printed with the Vimalaà ÂuddhaprabhÃÂsa-mahÃÂdhÃÂraá¹Âë-sà «tra, J: . It is thought they were printed in Nara, where the facilities, craftsmen and skills existed to undertake such large scale production. Marks on the bases of the wooden pagodas indicate that they were worked on lathes and studies of these have identified that more than 100 different lathes were used in their production.
More than 45,000 pagodas and 3,962 printed dharani survive in the Hà Âryà «-ji temple near Nara, but globally fewer than 50,000 pagodas are known to still exist. Their creation was completed around 770, and they were distributed to temples around the country.