Chinese honorifics () and honorific language are words, word constructs, and expressions in the Chinese language that convey self-deprecation, social respect, politeness, or deference. Once ubiquitously employed in ancient China, a large percent has fallen out of use in the contemporary Chinese lexicon. The promotion of vernacular Chinese during the New Culture Movement ( or ) of the 1910s and 1920s in China further hastened the demise of a large body of Chinese honorifics previously preserved in the vocabulary and grammar of Classical Chinese.
Although Chinese honorifics have simplified to a large degree, contemporary Chinese still retains a sizable set of honorifics. Many of the classical constructs are also occasionally employed by contemporary speakers to convey formality, humility, politeness or respect. Usage of classical Chinese honorifics is also found frequently in contemporary Chinese literature and television or cinematic productions that are set in the historical periods. Honorific language in Chinese is achieved by using honorific or beautifying alternatives, prefixing or suffixing a word with a polite complement, or by dropping casual-sounding words.
In general, there are five distinct categories of honorific language:
Because of its widespread usage as a Lingua Franca, Mandarin Chinese is used herein synonymously with the term "contemporary Chinese". Variations in honorifics used and their usage exist in the other Sinitic languages, as well as among the various Mandarin dialects.
The term çÂ¥æ¸éÂÂ禮 (Literally -- one who knows the books and achieves proper mannerism) has been used to praise and characterize those of high academic and moral accomplishments and those of proper manner and conduct. Using the proper honorific or humble forms of address and other parts of speech toward oneself and toward others is an important element or requirement in the proper observation of 禮å (lÃÂyÃÂ, etiquette, formality, and rite). Honorific parts of speech include pronoun substitutes, modified nouns, proper nouns, and pronouns, modified verbs, honorific adjectives, honorific æÂÂ誠(chéngyÃÂ, "canned phrases/idioms"), and honorific alternatives for other neutral or deprecating words.
In ancient China, myriad humble and respectful forms of address, in lieu of personal pronouns and names, were used for various social relationships and situations. The choice of a pronoun substitute was often in adherence to the concepts of (Lit. above-beneath / superior-subordinate, âÂÂsocial hierarchyâÂÂ), (Lit. worthy-worthless, "social class"), and ("seniority") or for short.
In the Confucian philosophical classic of <u></u> or <u>"Yizhuan - Xici"</u>âÂÂa latter day commentary on the book of <u></u> or "<u>I Ching"</u> ("Book of Changes"), it is stated "天å°Âå°åÂÂï¼Âä¹¾å¤å®Âç£ãÂÂÃ¥ÂÂé«Â以é³ï¼Â貴賤ä½Âç£ãÂÂ" -- it was believed in ancient China that both the order of nature, i.e., 天å°Âå°å (heaven be above, earth be beneath), and from it the derived order of man, were long predetermined and dictated by the heavens, e.g., Ã¥ÂÂå°Âè£å (king be above/superior, court officials be beneath/subordinate), ç·å°Â女å (man superior, woman subordinate), 夫å°Â婦å (husband superior, wife subordinate), and ç¶å°ÂÃ¥ÂÂå (father superior, son subordinate) etc. Every king and their subject, every man and woman, every husband and wife, and every father and son, should naturally follow this predetermined order and practice proper and conduct. As a large part of , proper speech was of great importance.
Therefore in speech, among other forms of and social behaviors, the "subordinate" or "inferior" would employ self-deprecating and humble language towards self and respectful language towards the "superior" as a recognition of their relative places in the "natural" hierarchy. On the other hand, the "superiors" would often also use humble language as a display of humility and virtue. Unsurprisingly, the characters å°Â~ and Ã¥ÂÂ~ also became honorific and humble prefixes, respectively. For example, the humble substitute (this inferior one below) would be used, among other deprecating substitutes, in place of the pronoun "I", and the honorific substitute (the superior one above) would replace the pronoun "you" (later also used for "your parents").
Related to is the concept of . Those with power, money and status were è²´ (worthy, honorable), and those without were 賤 (worthless, despised). These two characters also became the honorific and humble prefixes è²´~ and 賤~. Examples: è²´å (your honorable country), 貴庠(your honorable age), 貴姠(your honorable surname), è²´å ¬å¸ (your honorable company), and 賤姠(my unworthy surname), 賤氠(the unworthy and despised commoner), 賤妾 (this unworthy wife of yours), 賤å (my unworthy wife), etc. è²´~ remains a commonly used honorific prefix to this day.
Likewise, those of a junior (i.e., or ) would show respect and deference to their ("senior"), or ("elder"), and ("ancestors"). is not necessarily based on age, for example, a younger person who entered a school or profession before an older person would be considered the . A person who is much younger than his/her nephew in a large extended family would still be a to the nephew. If two people are of the same (i.e., or ), then either experience or age would determine the hierarchy depending on the situation.
Contemporary Chinese mostly abandoned the and distinctions (especially å and 賤) in its honorific practice, but retains elements of the distinctions. For example, the suffixes ~ (Lit. elder sister) and ~ (Lit. elder brother) are commonly used by junior people when addressing their seniors. Those of the next higher (i.e., ) acquire the suffixes ~姨ï¼Â~å etc. Those even higher in receive the suffixes ~å©Âï¼Â~å ¬ï¼Â~伯 etc. When addressing a junior, the suffixes ~妹, ~å¼ are used. While these suffixes derived from kinship names, they are commonly used between unrelated people. Example: when addressing a group leader at work whose name is ï¼Âthe less experienced person in the group might call her è³姠FÃÂng-jiÃÂ. Because these suffixes have an age connotation, their use and application are not always appropriate. Variations were created such as ~å°Âå¥åÂÂ¥ (Lit. little elder brother)ï¼ ~å°Âå§Â姠(Lit. little elder sister) to soften age connotations. A wrong suffix can also be used intentionally to please or belittle another person. For example, some older women may prefer a ï½Â姨 rather than ï½Âå© suffix, and a middle age woman may prefer to still be called ~姠rather than ~姨. When these suffixes are used without a preceding name, or when a name is not complemented by one of these suffixes, the intimacy prefix ~ is often added. is a functional particle without an actual meaning by itself, but when combined with a name (e.g., é¿è³ï¼Âé¿強) or with one of the related suffixes (e.g., é¿åÂ¥ï¼Âé¿姨ï¼Âé¿伯ï¼Âé¿å©Â), adds a sense of intimacy (i.e., closeness, affection) with the addressed. can be used together with a suffix, e.g., é¿è³姠(ÃÂ-FÃÂng-jiÃÂ)ï¼Âé¿强åÂÂ¥ (ÃÂ-Qiáng-gÃÂ). Other related honorific modifiers include èÂÂ~ï¼Â大~ï¼Âå°Â~ï¼Â~總ï¼Â~è£, see noun complements section below for more details.
Like nouns and proper nouns, some Chinese verbs can also be complemented with an honorific modifier. For example, the verbs ("to tell"), ("to return")ï¼ ("to accompany"), ("to urge")ï¼ ("to gift") can be complemented by the honorific prefix ~ (Lit. to offer respectfully) to form the more polite versions å¥Âå (I respectfully tell you), å¥Âé (I respectfully return to you), å¥Âéª (I respectfully accompany you), å¥Âå¸ (I respectfully urge you), and å¥Âé (I respectfully gift you). Another example is the honorific prefix ~ (Lit. "look forward to respectfully"), e.g., æÂÂè³ (I respectfully congratulate you), æÂÂå (I respectfully await you), æÂÂè« (I respectfully invite you)ï¼ÂæÂÂè¿ (I respectfully welcome you). The addition of the honorific prefix turns these verbs into a politer version. Unlike adverbs, the prefixes are often verbs themselves, and the compounded honorific verb functions as a single language unit (i.e., a single verb). Other common prefixes for verbs and verb examples are summarized in the verb complements section below.
In practice, many of the honorific compound words are used as canned polite word alternatives, rather than being grammatically composed as people speak. There is not a systemic rule in Chinese grammar to alter words (e.g., conjugation or other inflections) for the purpose of increasing speech politeness, though the same effect can often be achieved. However, in letters (ï¼Â) and official documents (), a complex system of honorifics and rule sets exists.
Example 1:
The sentence above is a perfectly acceptable question when addressing others of equal or lower status (e.g., addressing a junior or a child). To increase politeness, e.g., if the addressee is of higher status or the person asking the question wants to show more respect, several changes may be employed:
The resulting sentence:
is more polite and commonly used among people in formal situations.
Example 2:
The above can be changed to a more polite question by employing the honorific prefix æ¢ (<small>lit.</small> to dare) + verb å (to ask) (gÃÂnwèn, "[May I] dare to ask..."), and honorific prefix (fÃÂng, <small>lit.</small> fragrant, virtuous, beautiful) + noun (lÃÂng, age).
The second-person pronoun ("you") is substituted entirely by the honorific title ("Miss") in this case. This latter way of questioning is more of classical usage, but is still occasionally used in contemporary Chinese. It is also an example of elegant speech ().
In general, there are several types of honorifics used in the Chinese language as described below.
- Respectful Language employs modified words or substitutes called (Lit. respectful vocabulary) that convey a sense of respect for the addressee. For example:
- Humble Language employs modified words or substitutes called (Lit. humble vocabulary) that convey a sense of self-deprecation and humility for the speaker. For example:
- Indirect Language employs words called (Lit. indirect vocabulary - e.g., euphemisms) that are used to hide or beautify an otherwise unfortunate event or action. For example:
- Courteous Language employs specific words or phrases that have courteous and praising connotations intended to flatter the addressee. For example:
- Elegant Language employs elegant or beautiful expressions and words in lieu of everyday casual words and phrases to describe people, objects, actions or concepts. It is often used on occasions where casual language may be inappropriate. Due to the lack of equivalent expressions in English, the translated phrases often do not convey the same sense of beauty or elegance. Examples:
(respectful vocabulary) and (humble vocabulary) are frequently found in the various forms of address in the Chinese language. Below is a collection of the better known honorific forms of address that have been used at one time or another in the Chinese lexicon. Although many are obsolete in usage, most remain relevant in contemporary literature and in the understanding of the Chinese language. Pronunciations given are those of today's Mandarin Chinese. Because of the vast number and complexity, the list provided is intended for reference rather than completeness.
When referring to oneself in ancient China, people avoided first-person pronouns ("I", "me", "we", and "us"). Instead, a third-person descriptor was used, which varied according to the situation. Referring to oneself in the third-person could be used arrogantly as well, to assert one's superiority or dominance over one's audience. This was most common in the imperial middle management the imperial consorts, the military, and the imperial bureaucracy (e.g., ), with the emperor instead often describing himself in sorrowful terms out of respect for his deceased father (e.g., å¤ç "This Orphaned King"ï¼Â寡人 "This Lonesome Man").
For the same reasons, and to a much lesser degree, the first-person pronouns are sometimes avoided also in contemporary usage. Often, the generic self-referencing prefix æ¬~ï¼Â该~ï¼ or a humble / self-deprecating prefix such as æÂÂ~ is used with a third-person descriptor, for example: æ¬人æ¯æÂ¥èªç²堬å¸çÂÂï¼ÂæÂÂå ¬å¸æ³è·Âæ¨åÂÂ个访é®ãÂÂ-- Literally, "This person is from company A, this unkempt company would like to do an interview with you." translated to "I am from company A, we would like to do an interview with you."
Provided below are some first-person honorific substitutes and usages. Their relevancy (i.e., contemporary vs. classical) and gender association are also indicated. Plurals ("we", "us") in classical Chinese are formed by the suffixes ~ç or ~ä¼Â人 etc., and in contemporary Chinese by ~们. A "classical usage" designation does not preclude usage in contemporary speech or writing, as contemporary Chinese often incorporates classical elements, though it is much less likely to be seen or used in the contemporary context.
The following directly replace the pronoun "I" in usage by commoners or people of low social status. Example: rather than å¾(æÂÂ)以çºæ¤æ¹ä¸Âå¯ - "I think this idea will not work" one would say æÂÂ以çºæ¤æ¹ä¸Âå¯ - "This unintelligent one thinks this idea will not work."
The following directly replace the first person pronoun "I" in usage by the royalty. For kings and emperors, gender is assumed to be male for simplicity, because the overwhelming majority of Chinese kings and emperors were men, with only a few exceptions. Sometimes the generic self-referencing prefix æ¬~ was used with the speaker's title. For example, æ¬贵人ãÂÂ
The following directly replace the first person pronoun "I" in usage by government and military officials.
The following directly replace the first person pronoun "I" in usage by the elderly.
The following directly replace the first person pronoun "I" in usage by scholars and monks.
In some parts of China, the following are used in place of "I" to indicate contempt for the listener, to assert the superiority of oneself, or when teasing:
When used towards a person less well known or on formal occasions, these terms are considered to be incredibly rude, and are usually used to purposely disgrace the addressee; however, it is less of an issue when spoken among close friends, though even some friends might still be offended by their use.
Similarly, the possessive case "my" and "our" are avoided by virtue of being associated to the humble self. This is often achieved by a humble or self-deprecating prefix, while in other cases by an honorific substitute as described below.
Humble substitutes are used by people when referring to their own family or family members, and replace terms such as my/our family, my wife, my husband, my/our father, my/our mother, my/our son, my/our daughter etc.
The generic self-referencing prefix æ¬~ or humble prefix æÂÂ~ is prepended to the speaker's affiliated organization to form an honorific. For example, æÂÂæ ¡ ("our school"), æÂÂå ¬å¸ ("our company"), and ("our unit") are used instead of a plural pronoun (E.g. ).
The following are commonly found in spiritual tablets and gravestones for family members.
The same concept of hierarchical speech and etiquette affects terms of address towards others. Often, the same honorific substitutes can be used for both second-person and third-person.
In contemporary Chinese (both spoken and written), the second-person singular pronoun (nÃÂ, "you") can be substituted with its polite form (nÃÂn, "you" [cherished]) to express politeness. In some cases, the addressee's profession or title can be used. In others, specific honorific substitutes are used, e.g., é£丠(Lit. beneath your pavilion) is used instead of the pronoun "you" to show respect. Historically, many other honorific usages existed.
In contemporary usage, the pronouns ä½ /æ¨ï¼Âä½ åÂÂï¼Âä»Â/她ï¼Âand ä»Â/她å are sometimes appended redundantly to the honorific substitute. For example, when saying è«Âé£ä¸Âæ¨栢走, æ¨ is optionally inserted after é£ä¸Â. This is likely out of a contemporary habit to use actual pronouns in speech.
Provided below are some of the better known second-person or third-person honorific substitutes and usages.
The following were honorifics used when people addressed the Royalty in ancient China. Often, imperial titles were also used as pronoun substitutes. For example, the emperor may address the empress by her title çÂÂÃ¥ÂÂ. A royal servant may address a princess as 堬主. Not all royal titles are listed.
The following were used when addressing government and military officials. Often, their title (e.g., ä¸Âç¸ï¼Âå°ÂÃ¥ÂÂ) can be used alone or as a suffix after their family name to form an honorific.
The following honorifics are used to address acquaintances or friends.
The following are used between family members. Also see Familial Honorifics section below.
Similarly, the possessive case "your" is avoided. This is often achieved by the honorific prefixes 令~, å°Â~, è´¤~, è´µ~ as described below.
The following honorifics are used to show respect when referencing the addressee's family members.
The honorific prefixes è´µ~ and å®Â~ are often used.
Often, the addressee's profession or title (or as a suffix after their name) is used as an honorific form of address. Below are some common titles.
Below is a list of common honorific prefixes and suffixes used with nouns and proper nouns to show intimacy, humility, honor, or respect. Some may have shown up in pronoun discussions. While noun modifiers are technically adjectives, honorific prefixes/suffixes are different from normal adjectives in that they become part of the noun in usage, and the meaning of the modifying prefix/suffix is usually not taken literally - only added functionally to show respect or humility. Because Chinese words are usually formed also by combining multiple root characters (each with a literal meaning), it is not always immediately apparent when using a polite version of a word that an honorific modifier is in use.
Similar to nouns, verbs can be complemented with honorific prefixes to form more polite versions. Below are some examples.
There are innumerable words (nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs) in the Chinese language with specific humble, respectful, or beautifying honorific connotations, in addition to the base meaning of the word. It is not possible to catalog them all, but some additional examples are provided in this section. These words are often used in lieu of a bland, neutral, or deprecating alternative to show deference, respect, or elegance. Just like with Chinese æÂÂ诠(chéngyÃÂ, "canned phrases/idioms"), it is often difficult to translate these words into English or another language, because it would require an elaborate explanation of the meaning, metaphors, and nuances captured succinctly in the Chinese honorific equivalent.
Additional examples:
Additional examples:
Additional examples:
Additional examples:
Additional examples:
"to separate": elegant ways to describe various types of separations (i.e., bidding farewell) using the word å«. The sense of elegance / beauty for these words is not translatable, so they are not translated here.
"brush / pen": elegant ways to describe various situations related to writing/painting, literature and work of art using the word 笠as a metaphor.
Some familial honorifics and examples were described in the sections above. This section consolidates the common contemporary familial prefixes and suffixes; some usages may be regional. Also see article on Chinese Kinship.
<u>Addressing own family members:</u>
~: elders / intimacy
~: intimacy
~: usually reserved for the eldest sibling and eldest uncle/aunt; In classical Chinese ~ was also used: é¿å Âï¼Âé¿å«Âï¼Âé¿姠etc.
~: diminutive for youngsters
~: regional usage
<u>Referring to own family members in front of others:</u>
~: less used in contemporary speech; used more in formal writing.
~: mostly only used in formal writing now.
<u>Referring to another person's family members:</u>
~: less used in contemporary speech; used more in formal writing
~: used in social correspondence; sometimes in speech for formality
~: mostly obsolete in speech as a familial honorific prefix
Salutation is used at the beginning of a speech or a letter to address the audience or recipient(s). Below are a few examples in contemporary Chinese:
Chinese letter writing, especially in Classical Chinese, employs a highly complex system of unique honorifics and honorific rule sets.