Adang is a Papuan language of the TimorâÂÂAlorâÂÂPantar language family spoken on the island of Alor in Indonesia. The language is agglutinative. The Hamap dialect is sometimes treated as a separate language; on the other hand, Kabola, which is sociolinguistically distinct, is sometimes included. Adang, Hamap, and Kabola are considered a dialect chain. Adang is endangered as fewer speakers raise their children in Adang, instead opting for Indonesian.
Notes:
Diphthongs are /ai/, /oi/, /eu/, /au/ and /ou/. Vowel sequences that begin with a lax mid vowel (i.e. /ÃÂÃÂ/ or /ÃÂ/) cannot be diphthongs and are always disyllabic.
Adang syllable structure is (C)V(C). V can either be a monophthong or a diphthong. C can be almost any consonant. Exceptions are /f/, which never occurs in syllable final position, and /dáÃÂ/, which only ever occurs in final position. /s/ and /g/ only occur syllable-finally in specific categories of words (i.e. loanwords and onomatopoeic words, resp.).
Clauses in Adang are predicate-final: intransitive verbal predicates have Subject-Verb order and transitive predicates follow Agent-Patient-Verb order. In ditransitive constructions the theme precedes the recipient. Adang has accusative alignment. Some sentence examples:
A nominal predicate also follows the subject (note that Adang does not use a copula):
A clause is negated by placing negator nanÃÂ or nÃÂnÃÂ after the predicate. Besides nanÃÂ there are two negative particles: ÃÂÃÂ and haÃÂai. ÃÂÃÂ is used to limit the scope of negator nanÃÂ by placing ÃÂÃÂ in front of the negated element. In this case nanÃÂ must still succeed the predicate:
NanÃÂ may also be used on its own for rules or general prohibitions. Alternatively, ÃÂÃÂ at the end of a clause expresses a negative imperative (without nanÃÂ). Compare:
To make a negative imperative more polite add haÃÂai to the beginning of the sentence. Lastly, the verb aÃÂai negates existence or possession.
Adang question words are anÃÂàâÂÂwhoâÂÂ, naba âÂÂwhatâÂÂ, tarÃÂÃÂàâÂÂwhereâÂÂ, tarÃÂÃÂÃÂni âÂÂhow/whyâ and den âÂÂhow many/whenâÂÂ. They remain in situ. Depending on whether they replace a subject or an object they can be followed by the subject focus marker so or the object focus marker fe.
YesâÂÂno questions are distinguished from declarative sentences by rising intonation on the last syllable.
The structure of the Adang noun phrase:<blockquote>(possessor + possessive.pronoun) N V <small>CLF</small> V numeral quantifier <small>REL DEM/DEF</small> (Robinson & Haan 2014:242)</blockquote>
A demonstrative or the definite determiner ho is placed at the end of the noun phrase. The demonstrative paradigm shows a distinction between proximal (hÃÂÃÂÃÂ) and distal, and distal demonstratives further distinguish between location above the speaker (hÃÂtÃÂ), below the speaker (hÃÂpÃÂ) and level with the speaker (hÃÂmÃÂ).
Nouns are divided into three classes according to their behavior concerning possession: the first class must with occur possessive pronominal prefixes at all times (inalienable), the second never occurs with possessive pronominal prefixes and instead uses independent possessive pronouns (alienable), and the third only occurs with possessive pronominal prefixes when possessed. The prefix sets of the first and third classes are different. Next to the independent possessive pronouns of alienable nouns, Adang has a set of contrastive possessive pronouns. These may occur before or without alienable pronouns, and also together with possessive prefixes. They can also occur without a possessed noun.
Adang uses intransitive verbs to modify nouns, as it has no separate word class of adjectives. In the noun phrase they may occur before or after the classifier (<small>CLF</small> in noun phrase template above). Locative or directional verbs also occur in this position (see Location and direction).
Classifiers occur between a noun and a number larger than one. They classify nouns by their size, shape and flexibility, but some nouns may take different classifiers to gain different interpretations. Out of the many Adang classifiers, paÃÂ is the most common and is used for many different kinds of objects.
Other examples include pir (used for small, round objects), beh (flat, flexible objects) and ÃÂafail (small, rigid objects).
Adang has many independent pronouns, organized in six paradigms. Two of these paradigms are of independent possessive pronouns, one occurring with alienable nouns and another fulfilling a contrastive function in combination with alienable nouns (with or without regular possessive pronoun) or inalienable nouns (with a possessive prefix). Contrastive possessive pronouns are also used without a noun. Besides regular possessive pronouns and contrastive possessive pronouns (see Possession), the four other paradigms are: subject pronouns, object pronouns, numbered pronouns and alone pronouns.
Subject pronouns are used for the subjects of transitive or intransitive verbs. They can be used to refer to any animate subject, human or non-human. Only in very limited circumstances can they refer to inanimate subjects.
An object pronoun indicates the object of a transitive verb. Some verbs do not use object pronouns, but use prefixes instead (see Object prefixes). Object pronouns and object prefixes cannot co-occur. Supi can precede third person ÃÂari to make clear that it had plural meaning.
A numbered pronoun is used when a pronoun is modified by a number greater than one or the question word den (âÂÂhow many?âÂÂ). It can be used for both subjects and objects, either on its own or following a regular subject pronoun or object pronoun.
Alone pronouns refer to a person or a group of people doing something on their own. They can refer to the subject or the object of a clause. If an alone pronoun refers to a subject it may co-index a preceding argument, but this is not necessary. If it indicates an object it has to occur together with an object pronoun.
Verbs in Adang may take pronominal and/or valency-increasing prefixes. Pronominal prefixes mostly serve to mark objects on (di)transitive verbs. For some verbs object-marking is obligatory, while for others it is optional, and some verbs are never marked for object. Verbs that do take object-prefixes are a closed class. Whether a verb selects a pronominal object prefix or an independent object pronoun is a lexical property of the verb, and the two cannot occur together. Even so object-marking is influenced somewhat by the animacy of the object. It is not necessary for a marked object to be animate, or for an animate object to be marked on the verb, but in the majority of cases object-marking goes together with an animate object.
The transitive verbs that always remain unprefixed include verbs that only appear with inanimate objects, verbs that only appear with animate objects, and verbs that may appear with either.
There are four series of pronominal prefixes (some of which also increase a verbâÂÂs valency), and two separate prefixes that increase valency.
Adang makes use of serial verb constructions and also uses verbs to indicate direction and location.
Some transitive verbs that select object prefixes instead of object pronouns, cannot occur without them. While the majority of these verbs have animate objects, a few verbs that always take inanimate objects belong to this class. Some verbs that may have objects of varying animacy are also included. Example of an object prefix:
It is possible for a verb to select an object prefix for an animate object, but remain unprefixed when it has an inanimate object. Compare: -può âÂÂcatch/hold someoneâ and può âÂÂhold somethingâÂÂ.
With an allative prefix a verbs valency is increased by one argument. It indicates movement toward that argument. There are two sets of allative prefixes. Of the two allative paradigms the first set can turn verbs from intransitive to transitive, from transitive to ditransitive. The second set is only found on three verbs: lap âÂÂsearchâÂÂ, lÃÂÃÂÃÂfàâÂÂcallâ and tain âÂÂreleaseâÂÂ. An example from each set of prefixes:
Set 1:
Set 2:
Ablative prefixes also increase the valency of a verb to indicate movement away from its referent. This movement may be physical or metaphorical. The collection of verbs that can have an ablative prefix is very limited and consists of five verbs: papaò âÂÂimitateâÂÂ, mala âÂÂshyâÂÂ, baroc âÂÂafraidâÂÂ, tafunià  âÂÂhideâ and tÃÂÃÂÃÂà  âÂÂrunâÂÂ.
Applicative prefix u- increases a verbâÂÂs valency by introducing a theme to a sentence. Other possible roles of an added argument are goals or beneficiaries. If it occurs together with a pronominal prefix, the applicative suffix precedes the pronominal suffix. Example:
The causative prefix adds a âÂÂcauserâ to a proposition, thereby increasing a verbâÂÂs valency. There are only ten intransitive verbs that may carry a causative prefix. These include muj âÂÂfall downâÂÂ, mih âÂÂsitâ and tÃÂÃÂÃÂh âÂÂstandâÂÂ. The prefix almost always occurs together with a pronominal prefix, which precedes it. The only exception is ÃÂÃÂÃÂÃÂl âÂÂfall overâÂÂ. An example:
Serial verb constructions are very common in Adang. Serial verb constructions consist of multiple verbs combined into a single predicate, and share arguments and features such as aspect and negation. Symmetrical serial verb constructions consist solely of verbs from open classes, while an SVC is asymmetrical when it contains one verb from a closed class, which must precede the other verb(s). Symmetrical SVCs describe a sequence of events or the manner of an event.
Asymmetrical serial verb constructions have several different uses, which are detailed below.
Comitative constructions use the verb -ra âÂÂbe withâ before the main verb.
In causative constructions the causative verb also precedes the main verb. Three verbs can be used in a causative SVC. These are -nÃÂÃÂÃÂàâÂÂaffectâÂÂ, -hou âÂÂcommandâ and -ÃÂn âÂÂgiveâÂÂ. -ÃÂn means âÂÂhelpâ in a causative SVC:
In a directional serial verb construction an intransitive directional verb (e.g. sam âÂÂgo (far)âÂÂ, ma âÂÂcomeâÂÂ) indicates the direction of an event. The directional verb precedes the main, open-class verb.
The instrumental serial verb construction is the only way in Adang to introduce an instrument argument. It uses the verb puin âÂÂholdâÂÂ:
A theme may be introduced by adding med âÂÂtakeâ before the open-class verb. While this construction is common in everyday speech, the verb med is entirely optional.
Verbs are also used to indicate direction or location, often in serial verb constructions. They cannot be intransitive, as they must have a subject and a location argument.
The verb làâÂÂto, towardsâ also forms a part of directional and locational compound verbs, for instance talàâÂÂup onâ and adaà ÂlàâÂÂaway from the speaker toward the mountainâÂÂ.
Locative deictics in Adang are considered to be verbs, because they can occur in serial verb constructions and modify nouns. Locative deictics distinguish between proximal (ÃÂÃÂÃÂÃÂà  âÂÂhereâÂÂ), distal above the speaker (tÃÂÃÂÃÂà  âÂÂthere (above)âÂÂ), distal level with the speaker (mÃÂÃÂÃÂà  âÂÂthere (level)âÂÂ) and distal below the speaker (pÃÂÃÂÃÂà  âÂÂthere (below)âÂÂ). Deictics may stand alone as predicates. Examples:
Adang expresses aspect with aspectual particles at the end of the predicate. Aspects that are grammatically marked in Adang are progressive, perfective and inceptive. The progressive particle is eh, the perfective particle is am, and the inceptive particle is eham. These particles do not have to be combined with a verbal predicate; they may also be used with a nominal predicate.
Adang kinship terminology features no obligatory distinction between siblings, parallel-cousins and cross-cousins. There is a distinction between younger and older siblings/cousins, respectively diàand matu, and a single term for the same group: -uding. These terms are all gender-neutral, but can be modified with ob âÂÂfemaleâ or lote âÂÂmaleâ (e.g. noâÂÂuding lote âÂÂmy sisterâÂÂ).
For biological siblings matu or diÃÂ is preferred, but -uding is also acceptable. Conversely, parallel-cousins are generally called -uding but may sometimes be called matu/diÃÂ. Cross-cousins are almost exclusively referred to as -uding.