In Hinduism, refers to the authority of the scriptures (à Âruti, Vedas) with regard to puruá¹£ÃÂrtha, the objects of human pursuit, namely dharma (right conduct), artha (means of life), kÃÂma (pleasure) and moká¹£a (liberation). Together with smá¹Âti ("that which is remembered, tradition": Dharmaà ÂÃÂstra, Hindu Epics, Puranas), ÃÂcÃÂra (good custom), and ÃÂtmatuá¹£á¹Âi ("what is pleasing to oneself"), it provides pramana (means of knowledge) and sources of dharma, as expressed in Classical Hindu law, philosophy, rituals and customs.
The first two are undisputed epistemic sources (pramÃÂá¹Âa), where à Âruti holds the ultimate or supreme authority as , while there is difference of opinion for and .
PramÃÂá¹Âa literally means "proof" and is also a concept and field of Indian philosophy. The concept is derived from the Sanskrit roots, pra (), a preposition meaning "outward" or "forth", and mà() which means "measurement". Pramàmeans "correct notion, true knowledge, basis, foundation, understand", with pramÃÂá¹Âa being a further nominalization of the word. Thus, the concept PramÃÂá¹Âa implies that which is a "means of acquiring prama or certain, correct, true knowledge".
Shastra commonly refers to a treatise or text on a specific field of knowledge. In early Vedic literature, the word referred to any precept, rule, teaching, ritual instruction or direction. In late and post Vedic literature of Hinduism, Shastra referred to any treatise, book or instrument of teaching, any manual or compendium on any subject in any field of knowledge, including religious. It is often a suffix, added to the subject of the treatise, such as Yoga-Shastra, Nyaya-Shastra, Dharma-Shastra, Koka- or Kama-Shastra, Moksha-Shastra, Artha-Shastra, Alamkara-Shastra (rhetoric), Kavya-Shastra (poetics), Sangita-Shastra (music), Natya-Shastra (theatre & dance) and others.
With regard to sÃÂstra pramÃÂá¹Âam is refers to the authority to the Vedic scriptures, as expressed in Bhagavadgita chapter 16, verse 24, where Krishna commands Arjuna to follow the authority of the scriptures:
Sruti, smriti, ÃÂcÃÂra and ÃÂtmatuá¹£á¹Âi are also the four sources of dharma in classical Hindu law, as expressed in Bhavishya Purana, Brahmaparva, Adhyaya 7:
The explanation of that sloka has been given in the digest (nibandha), bÃÂla nibandhÃÂdarà Âa: there in dharma, vedas are the only chief pramÃÂna. Smritis dissect (analyze) the essence of vedas only. Both of them support SadÃÂcÃÂra. ÃÂtmasantuá¹£á¹Âi that is favourable to all these is (then) dharma pramÃÂna.
Shruti (, , ) in Sanskrit means "that which is heard" and refers to the body of most authoritative, ancient religious texts comprising the central canon of Hinduism. They are the ultimate epistemic authority or mà «la pramÃÂá¹Âa (or prathama pramÃÂá¹Âa). Manusmriti states that à Ârutistu vedo vigneyah (Sanskrit: à ¤¶à ¥Âà ¤°à ¥Âà ¤¤à ¤¿à ¤¸à ¥Âà ¤¤à ¥ à ¤µà ¥Âà ¤¦à ¥ à ¤µà ¤¿à ¤Âà ¥Âà ¤Âà ¥Âà ¤¯:, lit. means "Know that Vedas are à Âruti"). Thus, it includes the four Vedas including its four types of embedded textsâÂÂthe Samhitas, the BrÃÂhmaá¹Âas, the Araá¹Âyakas and the Upaniá¹£ads. Bhagavad Gita is also referred as Gitopaniá¹£ad, thereby according it the status of Upanishad (i.e. à Âruti), even though it is originally part of smá¹Âti.
Vedic Sages such as Baudhayana, ParÃÂà Âara, VedavyÃÂsa, Gautama, Vaà Âiá¹£á¹Âha, ÃÂpastamba, Manu, and YÃÂjñavalkya have adhered this view in their works.
The main schools of Indian philosophy that reject the (epistemic authority of) Vedas were regarded as NÃÂstika, i.e. heterodox in the tradition.
Smriti (, IAST: ') is considered as the penultimate epistemic authority or dvitëya pramÃÂá¹Âa. Smriti literally means "that which is remembered" and it a body of Hindu texts usually attributed to an author, traditionally written down, in contrast to à Ârutis (the Vedic literature) considered authorless, that were transmitted verbally across the generations and fixed. Smriti is a derivative secondary work and is considered less authoritative than Sruti in Hinduism, except in the Mimamsa school of Hindu philosophy. The authority of smriti accepted by orthodox schools, is derived from that of shruti, on which it is based.
The Smrti literature is a corpus of diverse varied texts. This corpus includes, but is not limited to the six VedÃÂngas (the auxiliary sciences in the Vedas), the Itihasas (i.e. the MahÃÂbhÃÂrata and RÃÂmÃÂyana), the Dharmasà «tras and Dharmaà ÂÃÂstras (or Smritià ÂÃÂstras), the Arthasaà ÂÃÂstras, the PurÃÂnas, the KÃÂvya or poetical literature, extensive Bhasyas (reviews and commentaries on Shrutis and non-Shruti texts), and numerous Nibandhas (digests) covering politics, ethics (Nitisastras), culture, arts and society.
Each Smriti text exists in many versions, with many different readings. Smritis were considered fluid and freely rewritten by anyone in ancient and medieval Hindu tradition.
The authors of 18 smritis are namely, Atri, Viá¹£á¹Âu, HÃÂrëta, Auà Âanasë, ÃÂngirasa, Yama, ÃÂpastamba, Samvartta, KÃÂtyÃÂyana, Bá¹Âhaspati, ParÃÂà Âara, VyÃÂsa, à Âaá¹ kha, Likhita, Daká¹£a, Gautama, à ÂÃÂtÃÂtapa and Vaà Âiá¹£á¹Âha. YÃÂjñavalkya gives the list of total 20 by adding two more Smritis, namely, YÃÂjñavalkya and Manu. ParÃÂà Âara whose name appears in this list, enumerates also twenty authors, but instead of Samvartta, Bá¹Âhaspati, and VyÃÂsa, he gives the names of Kaà Âyapa, Bhá¹Âgu and Prachetas.
ÃÂpastamba and Vyasa considers the purÃÂá¹Âas as antepenultimate epistemic authority or tá¹Âtëya pramÃÂá¹Âa. In ÃÂpastambasmá¹Âti, it has been mentioned as
VyÃÂsasmá¹Âti (verse 1.5) state that
ÃÂcÃÂra (), also siá¹£á¹ÂÃÂchÃÂra or sadÃÂchara, is a concept used in the context of Classical Hindu law that refers to the customary laws or community norms of a particular social group. These community norms are delineated and put into practice by people who have earned the respect of those within each individual group, such as a community leader or elder. Although in Dharmaà ÂÃÂstra the ideal person who defines the ÃÂcÃÂra of a particular place is dictated as one who knows the Vedas or is âÂÂlearnedâÂÂ, in actual practice this role is often deferred to group leaders along with Vedic scholars. ÃÂcÃÂra is theologically important in classical Hindu law because it is considered, along with the Vedas (à Âruti), and Smriti (traditional texts such as the Dharmaà ÂÃÂstra literature), to be one of the sources of dharma. Particular regional ÃÂcÃÂra is believed to be canonized in Dharmaà ÂÃÂstra texts; however scholars differ on the source for the actual accounts found within these texts.
The Anuà ÂÃÂsana-parva of the Mahabharata states:
To ParÃÂà Âara, Manu, YÃÂjñavalkya, Vaà Âiá¹£á¹Âha and Baudhayana, the virtuous conduct of à Âiá¹£á¹Âas (virtuous learned men) and practice of good men, SadÃÂchara is the antepenultimate epistemic authority or tá¹Âtëya pramÃÂá¹Âa after à Ârutis and Smá¹Âtis. Vaà Âiá¹£á¹Âhasmá¹Âti verse 1.4 quotes, tadalabhe à Âiá¹£á¹ÂÃÂchÃÂrah pramÃÂá¹Âam, i.e. only if the relevant references are absent in those both, then à Âiá¹£á¹Âa ÃÂchÃÂra can be considered as Antepenultimate pramÃÂá¹Âa. According to the sage Vaà Âiá¹£á¹Âha, à Âruti and Smá¹Âti are more important sources than others. The Padma Purana also prescribes as similar view.
While citing à Âiá¹£á¹ÂÃÂgama (lit. that which has come down from à Âiá¹£á¹Âas) as the antepenultimate authority after Vedas and smirtis by Baudhayana in his smriti (verse 1.5), the à Âiá¹£á¹Âas are defined thus:-Sistas (indeed are those) who are free from envy (vigatamatsarÃÂḥ), free from pride (nirahankÃÂrÃÂḥ), contented with a store of grain sufficient for ten days (kumbhëdhÃÂnyÃÂḥ), free from covetousness (alolupÃÂḥ), and free from hypocrisy (damba), arrogance (darpa), greed (lobha), perplexity (confusion) and anger (krodha).
Kumarila Bhatta, prominent MëmÃÂá¹Âsàscholar from early medieval India states in his Tantravartika:
ÃÂtmaá¹£tuá¹Âi is usually translated into English as being "what is pleasing to oneself." The first three sources of law are rooted in the vedas, whereas ÃÂtmatuá¹£á¹Âi is not. It is because of this that ÃÂtmatuá¹£á¹Âi, as a fourth source (i.e. caturtha pramÃÂá¹Âa), is not recognized by most scholars due to the lack of legitimacy. Only Manu and YÃÂjñavalkya refer to ÃÂtmatuá¹£á¹Âi as the fourth source of dharma within the Hindu Law tradition. Textual accounts of Manu's and Yajnavalkya's placement of ÃÂtmatuá¹£á¹Âi as a fourth source of dharma can be found in The Law Code of Manu 2.6 and The Law Code of Yajnavalkya 1.7. Also, ÃÂtmatuá¹£á¹Âi does not share the same authority as sruti, smriti, and acara. ÃÂtmatuá¹£á¹Âi differs significantly from the other three sources of dharma in that it is not based on an "authority exterior to man"; in other words, an individual is able to create their own authority for any issue not covered under sruti, smriti, and acara.
ÃÂtmatuá¹£á¹Âi is also known as Há¹ÂdayÃÂnujña (free will) is mentioned also by Manu, YÃÂjñavalkya and Vishnu distinctly mention this as a or source of moral and religion knowledge. YÃÂjñavalkya goes further step adding good intent (samyaksaá¹Âkalpa) as additional fifth source of Dharma:
Later, samyaksaá¹Âkalpa (Pali: sammàsaá¹ kappa) was included among the Noble Eightfold Path (ÃÂryÃÂá¹£á¹ÂÃÂá¹ gamÃÂrga) putforth by Gautama Buddha.
Conflict between different epistemic sources, generally termed as virodha. When there is an instance of conflict between the smriti and the à Âruti, the à Âruti shall prevail. Similarly, Whenever there is conflict between different epistemic sources in general, then as per ÃÂpastamba, it is advised to refer more preceding epistemic sources as they hold more authority. In ÃÂpastambasmá¹Âti, it is mentioned as
Vedavyasa also holds a similar view in his vyÃÂsasmá¹Âti, verse 1.4
The Prasthanatrayi (Sanskrit: à ¤ªà ¥Âà ¤°à ¤¸à ¥Âà ¤¥à ¤¾à ¤¨à ¤¤à ¥Âà ¤°à ¤¯à ¥Â, IAST: PrasthÃÂnatrayë) are the three canonical texts of Hindu theology having epistemic authority, especially of the Vedanta schools, namely the Upanishads, the Brahma Sutras, and the Bhagavad Gita. Prasthanatrayi can viewed as subset of Hindu epistemic sources. Vedanta is also known as Uttara MëmÃÂá¹Âsàis one of the six (ÃÂstika) schools of Hindu philosophy. These six schools are traditionally referred as shad-darà Âanas as they give their own points of view on the Hindu scriptures. VedÃÂnta school is based on Brahma Sà «tras (Sanskrit: à ¤¬à ¥Âà ¤°à ¤¹à ¥Âà ¤® à ¤¸à ¥Âà ¤¤à ¥Âà ¤°) of BÃÂdarÃÂyana. Adi Sankara who propagated Advaita has established the concept of Prasthanatrayi, the epistemic references based on à ÂÃÂstra pramÃÂá¹Âam in Hinduism. Along with Brahma sutras, upanishads are considered from Vedas and Bhagavad gita is chosen from Mahabharata, which is Itihasa (i.e. part of smriti). The same has been accepted by all other acharyas of other vedanta schools such as Ramanuja, Madhwa, etc.
à ÂÃÂstra pramÃÂá¹Âam has been used by social reformers for 19th century from Bengal such as Ishwar Chandra Vidyasagar. He was the most prominent campaigner for widow remarriage and was supported in this by many wise and elite gentlemen of the society and the first signatory on his application to the then Governor General was Shri Kasinath Dutta, belonging to the Hatkhola Dutta lineage. He petitioned in legislative council and was responsible for Hindu Widows' Remarriage Act, 1856. In the same century, Similar effort from south India was carried by social reformers such as Kandukuri Veeresalingam pantulu and Gurazada Apparao to eradicate social evils.
B. R. Ambedkar has criticized the rigidity of à ÂÃÂstra pramÃÂá¹Âam in Hinduism in his work Annihilation of Caste by attacking especially on Manusmriti. In order to prevent child marriages among Hindus, The Child Marriage Restraint Act was passed in 1929. à ÂÃÂstra pramÃÂá¹Âam was considered by Hindu pandits appointed by the age of consent committee to fix the age of marriage of girl child and then it was fixed to be 14 later by Sarda Act.