The death poem is a genre of poetry that developed in the literary traditions of the SinosphereâÂÂmost prominently in Japan as well as certain periods of Chinese history, Joseon Korea, and Vietnam. They tend to offer a reflection on deathâÂÂboth in general and concerning the imminent death of the authorâÂÂthat is often coupled with a meaningful observation on life. The practice of writing a death poem has its origins in Zen Buddhism. It is a concept or worldview derived from the Buddhist teaching of the , specifically that the material world is transient and , that attachment to it causes , and ultimately all reality is an . These poems became associated with the literate, spiritual, and ruling segments of society, as they were customarily composed by a poet, warrior, nobleman, or Buddhist monk.
The writing of a poem at the time of one's death and reflecting on the nature of death in an impermanent, transitory world is unique to East Asian culture. It has close ties with Buddhism, and particularly the mystical Zen Buddhism (of Japan), Chan Buddhism (of China), Seon Buddhism (of Korea), and Thiá»Ân Buddhism (of Vietnam). From its inception, Buddhism has stressed the importance of death because awareness of death is what prompted the Buddha to perceive the ultimate futility of worldly concerns and pleasures. A death poem exemplifies the search for a new viewpoint, a new way of looking at life and things generally, or a version of enlightenment (satori in Japanese; wu in Chinese). According to comparative religion scholar Julia Ching, Japanese Buddhism "is so closely associated with the memory of the dead and the ancestral cult that the family shrines dedicated to the ancestors, and still occupying a place of honor in homes, are popularly called the Butsudan, literally 'the Buddhist altars'. It has been the custom in modern Japan to have Shinto weddings, but to turn to Buddhism in times of bereavement and for funeral services".
The writing of a death poem was limited to the society's literate class, ruling class, samurai, and monks. It was introduced to Western audiences during World War II when Japanese soldiers, emboldened by their culture's samurai legacy, would write poems before suicidal missions or battles.
Yuan Chonghuan (, 1584âÂÂ1630) was a politician and military general who served under the Ming dynasty. He is best known for defending Liaodong from Jurchen invaders during the Later Jin invasion of the Ming. Yuan met his end when he was arrested and executed by lingchi ("slow slicing") on the order of the Chongzhen Emperor under false charges of treason, which were believed to have been planted against him by the Jurchens. Before his execution, he produced the following poem.
Xia Wanchun (, 1631âÂÂ1647) was a Ming dynasty poet and soldier. He is famous for resisting the Manchu invaders and died aged 17. He wrote the poem before his death.
Zheng Ting (; died 621) was a politician in the end of the Sui dynasty. He was executed by Wang Shichong after trying to resign from his official position under Wang and become a Buddhist monk. He faced the execution without fear and wrote this death poem, which reflected his strong Buddhist belief.
Yang Jisheng (; 1516 â 1555) was a Chinese court official of the Ming dynasty who held multiple posts during the reign of the Jiajing Emperor. He was executed because of his stand against political opponent Yan Song. The evening before his execution, Yang Jisheng wrote a poem which was preserved on monuments and in later accounts of his life. It reads:
Wen Tianxiang (; 1236âÂÂ1283) was a Chinese poet and politician in the last years of the Southern Song dynasty. He was executed by Kublai Khan for the uprisings against Yuan dynasty.
Tan Sitong (; March 10, 1865 â September 28, 1898) was a well-known Chinese politician, thinker, and reformist in the late Qing dynasty (1644âÂÂ1911). He was executed at the age of 33 when the Hundred Days' Reform failed in 1898. Tan Sitong was one of the six gentlemen of the Hundred Days' Reform, and occupies an important place in modern Chinese history.
The poem's structure can be in one of many forms, including the two traditional forms in Japanese literature: kanshi or waka. Sometimes they are written in the three-line, seventeen-syllable haiku form, although the most common type of death poem (called a ) is in the waka form called the tanka (also called a ) which consists of five lines totaling 31 syllables (5-7-5-7-7)âÂÂa form that constitutes over half of surviving death poems (Ogiu, 317âÂÂ318).
Poetry has long been a core part of Japanese tradition. Death poems are typically graceful, natural, and emotionally neutral, in accordance with the teachings of Buddhism and Shinto. Excepting the earliest works of this tradition, it has been considered inappropriate to mention death explicitly; rather, metaphorical references such as sunsets, autumn or falling cherry blossom suggest the transience of life.
It was an ancient custom in Japan for literate persons to compose a jisei on their deathbed. One of the earliest was recited by Prince à Âtsu, executed in 686. More examples of jisei are those of the famous haiku poet Bashà Â, the Japanese Buddhist monk Ryà Âkan, Edo Castle builder à Âta Dà Âkan, the monk Gesshà « Sà Âko, and the woodblock master Tsukioka Yoshitoshi. The custom has continued into modern Japan. Some people left their death poems in multiple forms: Prince à Âtsu made both waka and kanshi, and Sen no Rikyà « made both kanshi and kyà Âka.
Fujiwara no Teishi, the first empress of Emperor Ichijo, was also known as a poet. Before her death in childbirth in 1001, she wrote three waka to express her sorrow and love to her servant, Sei Shà Ânagon, and the emperor. Teishi said that she would be entombed, rather than be cremated, so that she wrote that she will not become dust or cloud. The first one was selected into the poem collection Ogura Hyakunin Isshu.
On March 17, 1945, General Tadamichi Kuribayashi, the Japanese commander-in chief during the Battle of Iwo Jima, sent a final letter to Imperial Headquarters. In the message, General Kuribayashi apologized for failing to successfully defend Iwo Jima against the overwhelming forces of the United States military. At the same time, however, he expressed great pride in the heroism of his men, who, starving and thirsty, had been reduced to fighting with rifle butts and fists. He closed the message with three traditional death poems in waka form.
In 1970, writer Yukio Mishima and his disciple Masakatsu Morita composed death poems before their attempted coup at the Ichigaya garrison in Tokyo, where they committed seppuku. Mishima wrote:
Although he did not compose any formal death poem on his deathbed, the last poem written by Bashà  (1644âÂÂ1694), recorded by his disciple Takarai Kikaku during his final illness, is generally accepted as his poem of farewell:
Despite the seriousness of the subject matter, some Japanese poets have employed levity or irony in their final compositions. The Zen monk Tokà  (æÂÂå£; 1710âÂÂ1795) commented on the pretentiousness of some jisei in his own death poem:
This poem by Moriya Sen'an (d. 1838) showed an expectation of an entertaining afterlife:
The final line, "hopefully the cask will leak" (), is a play on the poet's name, Moriya Sen'an.
Written over a large calligraphic character æ» , meaning Death, the Japanese Zen master Hakuin Ekaku (ç½é 栧鶴; 1685âÂÂ1768) wrote as his jisei:
Besides Korean Buddhist monks, Confucian scholars called seonbis sometimes wrote death poems ( ). However, better-known examples are those written or recited by famous historical figures facing death when they were executed for loyalty to their former king or due to insidious plot. They are therefore impromptu verses, often declaring their loyalty or steadfastness. The following are some examples that are still learned by school children in Korea as models of loyalty. These examples are written in Korean sijo (three lines of 3-4-3-4 or its variation) or in Hanja five-syllable format (5-5-5-5 for a total of 20 syllables) of ancient Chinese poetry (äºÂè¨Âè©©).
Yi Kae (ì´ê°Â; 1417âÂÂ1456) was one of "six martyred ministers" who were executed for conspiring to assassinate King Sejo, who usurped the throne from his nephew Danjong. Sejo offered to pardon six ministers including Yi Kae and Sà Âng Sammun if they would repent their crime and accept his legitimacy, but Yi Kae and all others refused. He recited the following poem in his cell before execution on June 8, 1456. In the following sijo, "Lord" ( ) actually should read someone beloved or cherished, meaning King Danjong in this instance.
Like Yi Kae, Sà Âng Sammun (1418âÂÂ1456) was one of "six martyred ministers", and was the leader of the conspiracy to assassinate Sejo. He refused the offer of pardon and denied Sejo's legitimacy. He recited the following sijo in prison and the second one (five-syllable poem) on his way to the place of execution, where his limbs were tied to oxen and torn apart.
Cho Kwangjo (1482âÂÂ1519) was a neo-Confucian reformer who was framed by the conservative faction opposing his reforms in the Third Literati Purge of 1519. His political enemies slandered Jo to be disloyal by writing "Cho will become the king" ( , ) with honey on leaves so that caterpillars left behind the same phrase as if in supernatural manifestation. King Jungjong ordered his death by sending poison and abandoned Jo's reform measures. Jo, who had believed to the end that Jungjong would see his errors, wrote the following before drinking poison on December 20, 1519. Repetition of similar looking words is used to emphasize strong conviction in this five-syllable poem.
Chà Âng Mong-ju (ì Â몽주; 1337âÂÂ1392) was an influential high minister of the Goryeo dynasty when Yi Sà Âng-gye sought to overthrow it and establish a new dynasty. When Yi Pang-wà Ân, the son of Yi Sà Âng-gye, asked Chà Âng to support the founding of a new dynasty through a poem, Chà Âng answered with a poem of his own reaffirming his loyalty to the falling Goryeo dynasty. Just as he suspected, he was assassinated the same night on April 4, 1392. Chà Âng's death poem is the most famous in Korean history. Chà ÂngâÂÂs death poem survives in several forms: first written in classical Chinese (the scholarly language of the time), then transcribed into hangul, and finally rendered in a modernized hangul version for easier reading today.
(or Hyeon) (éÃÂÂ; 1855âÂÂ1910) was a Korean independence activist in the early 20th century. His art name was Maecheon (매ì²Â; 梠æ³Â), and he was the author of the Maecheon Yarok (매ì²Âì¼ë¡Â; 梠æ³ÂéÂÂéÂÂ), his diary of six volumes written from 1864 to 1910. Its detailed record of Korean historical events of the late 19th century makes it a notable primary source in research and education about the late Joseon dynasty and Korean Empire. For example, it is used in the creation of modern textbooks. He showed great respect to other Korean independence activists, writing poems of mourning for activists who committed suicide after the signing of the Eulsa Treaty of 1905. However, in 1910, he himself would commit suicide after the annexation of Korea. He left four death poems, with the third one being the most well-known in the modern day.
In Vietnam, death poems are referred to as thá tuyá»Ât má»Ânh (chữ Hán: 詩絶å½). These poems were commonly written in the Thất ngôn tứ tuyá»Ât (ä¸Âè¨ÂÃ¥ÂÂ絶) form following Tang dynasty poetic form. This genre of poems were especially significant during the French conquest of Vietnam. The poems can be either written in Hán vÃÂn (æ¼¢æÂÂ; Literary Chinese) or Vietnamese written in chữ Nôm (𡨸åÂÂ).
Há» Huân Nghiá»Âp (è¡å³æ¥Â; 1829âÂÂ1864) was an influential scholar during the Nguyá» n dynasty. He was also well known for being one of the first to fight against the French. The French eventually captured him in Gia ÃÂá»Ânh (Ã¥ÂÂå®Â; present-day Ho Chi Minh City). Before he was executed by the French, he washed his face, fixed his turban, and recited four verses of poetry before being beheaded.
Hoàng Phan Thái (é»Âæ½Âæ³°; 1819âÂÂ1865) was a reformist and revolutionary during the reign of Emperor Tá»± ÃÂức (å£德å¸Â). Advocating for the modernization of Vietnam, he proposed the creation of a new political party to implement reforms and challenge the stagnation of the Nguyá» n dynasty. To rally support for his cause, he adopted the title Grand General of the Eastern Sea (æ±海大å°Âè»Â; ÃÂông Hải ÃÂại Tðá»Âng Quân). In collaboration with Lê Duy Uẩn (é»Âç¶ÂèÂÂ) and Nguyá» n Thá»Ânh (é®çÂÂ), Hoàng Phan Thái sought to overthrow Tá»± ÃÂức's regime through a military uprising and to resist the French colonialists. Their strategy involved leveraging coastal forces and rallying support in the Nghá» Ténh region, with plans to weaken the Nguyá» n dynasty's central power. Despite their efforts, the uprising ultimately failed, and Hoàng Phan Thái was captured and executed for his revolutionary activities. Before his death, he wrote a death poem.
Lðu Thðá»Âng (Ã¥ÂÂ常; 1345âÂÂ1388) was a Vietnamese official of the Trần dynasty. He is most notably remembered for his involvement in a failed plot to rescue Trần Phế ÃÂế (é³廢å¸Â). In 1388, Há» Quý Ly (è¡å£çÂÂ), a powerful and ambitious official, manipulated the retired emperor, Trần Nghá» Tông (é³èÂÂå®Â) into forcing Trần Phế ÃÂế to commit suicide by hanging. Lðu Thðá»Âng, along with Nguyá» n Khoái (é®快) and Nguyá» n Vân Nhi (é®é²å Â), planned to save Trần Phế ÃÂế, but their efforts were discovered, and all participants in the plot were executed. Before his death, Lðu Thðá»Âng wrote a famous death poem that reflected his unwavering loyalty and sense of righteousness. His death poem is found in the eighth volume (å·ä¹Âå «) of ÃÂại Viá»Ât sá» ký toàn thð.
Nguyá» n Sð Phó (é®ç¡å ; 1458âÂÂ1519) was a Vietnamese court official of the Lê dynasty. He was well known for installing Lê Bảng (é»Âæ¦Â) as the new emperor (ÃÂại ÃÂức; 大德) after a series of rebellions and unrest. Around March 1519, Trá»Ânh Tuy (éÂÂç¶Â) deposed Lê Bảng and installed Bảng's younger brother, Lê Do (é»Â槱), as emperor, changing the era name to Thiên Hiến (天æ²). In July 1519, during a heavy rainstorm, Lê Chiêu Tông's general, Mạc ÃÂÃÂng Dung (è«ç»庸), led both naval and land forces to besiege Emperor Thiên Hiến at Từ Liêm. Nguyá» n Sð Phó fled to Ninh Sán but were captured by Lê Chiêu Tông's forces and taken prisoner. Before Nguyá» n Sð Phó was executed, he wrote a death poem. His death poem is found in the fifteenth volume (å·ä¹ÂÃ¥ÂÂäºÂ) of ÃÂại Viá»Ât sá» ký toàn thð.
Phan Thanh Giản was a Nguyá» n dynasty official who held position of Hiá»Âp biá»Ân ÃÂại há»Âc sé (Ã¥ÂÂ辦大å¸士; Assistant to the Grand Secretariat). He was most well known for negotiating the Treaty of Saigon which led to three provinces being ceded to the France. On 20 June 1867, the French captured the city of Vénh Long. Phan Thanh Giản who had been to France and knew overwhelming military strength of the French, surrendered the citadel without resistance, under the condition that the French would ensure the safety of the local population. After the fall of the citadel, Phan Thanh Giản wrote a death poem and committed suicide at the age of 72.
Nguyá» n Trung Trá»±c (é®忠ç´; 1838âÂÂ1868) was a Vietnamese fisherman who organized and led village militia forces which fought against French colonial forces in the Mekong Delta in southern Vietnam in the 1860s. After Nguyá» n Trung Trá»±c captured the French citadel in Rạch Giá, the French had taken his mother hostage. The French ended up regaining control of the citadel and captured Nguyá» n Trung Trá»±c. Nguyá» n Trung Trá»±c was beheaded by the French at Rạch Giá on October 27, 1868. Nguyá» n Trung Trá»±c wrote a death poem shortly before his death.