YÃÂska (7thâÂÂ5th century BCE) was an ancient Indian grammarian and Vedic linguist. Preceding PÃÂá¹Âini (7thâÂÂ4th century BCE), he is traditionally identified as the author of Nirukta, the discipline of "etymology" (explanation of words) within the Sanskrit grammatical tradition, and the Nighantu, the oldest proto-thesaurus in India. Nirukta is one of the six VedÃÂá¹ gas (limbs of the Veda) in Hinduism. Yaska is widely regarded as the precursive founder of the discipline of what would become etymology in both the East and the West.
PÃÂá¹Âini cites at least ten grammarians and linguists before him. According to Sumitra Mangesh Katre, the ten Vedic scholar names he quotes are of Apisali, Kashyapa, Gargya, Galava, Cakravarmana, Bharadvaja, Sakatayana, Sakalya, Senaka and Sphotayana.
Determining the exact century of Yaska is difficult, and opinions of different scholars vary from 7thâÂÂ5th century BC.
Yaska is the author of the Nirukta, a technical treatise on etymology, lexical category and the semantics of Sanskrit words. He is thought to have succeeded , an old grammarian and expositor of the Vedas, who is mentioned in his text.
The Nirukta attempts to explain how certain words get to have their meanings, especially in the context of interpreting the Vedic texts. It includes a system of rules for forming words from roots and affixes, and a glossary of irregular words, and formed the basis for later lexicons and dictionaries. It consists of three parts, viz.: (i) Naighantuka, a collection of synonyms; (ii) Naigama, a collection of words peculiar to the Vedas, and (iii) Daivata, words relating to deities and sacrifices.
Nirukta, or etymology was one of the six vedangas or compulsory subjects in the syllabus of Vedic scholarship in ancient India.
YÃÂska defined four main categories of words:
YÃÂska singled out two main ontological categories: a process or an action (bhÃÂva), and an entity or a being or a thing (sattva). Then he first defined the verb as that in which the bhÃÂva ('process') is predominant whereas a noun is that in which the sattva ('thing') is predominant. The 'process' is one that has, according to one interpretation, an early stage and a later stage and when such a 'process' is the dominant sense, a finite verb is used as in vrajati, 'walks', or pacati, 'cooks'.
But this characterisation of noun / verb is inadequate, as some processes may also have nominal forms. For e.g., He went for a walk. Hence, YÃÂska proposed that when a process is referred to as a 'petrified' or 'configured' mass (mà «rta) extending from start to finish, a verbal noun should be used, e.g. vrajyÃÂ, a walk, or pakti, a cooking. The latter may be viewed as a case of summary scanning, since the element of sequence in the process is lacking.
These concepts are related to modern notions of grammatical aspect, the mà «rta constituting the perfective and the bhÃÂva the imperfective aspect.
YÃÂska also gives a test for nouns both concrete and abstract: nouns are words which can be indicated by the pronoun that.
As in modern semantic theory, YÃÂska views words as the main carriers of meaning. This view â that words have a primary or preferred ontological status in defining meaning, was fiercely debated in the Indian tradition over many centuries. The two sides of the debate may be called the Nairuktas (based on YÃÂska's Nirukta, atomists), vs the VaiyÃÂkarans (grammarians following PÃÂá¹Âini, holists), and the debate continued in various forms for twelve centuries involving different philosophers from the Nyaya, Mimamsa and Buddhist schools.
In the prÃÂtishÃÂkhya texts that precede YÃÂska, and possibly Sakatayana as well, the gist of the controversy was stated cryptically in sutra form as "saá¹Âhitàpada-praká¹Âtiḥ". According to the atomist view, the words would be the primary elements (praká¹Âti) out of which the sentence is constructed, while the holistic view considers the sentence as the primary entity, originally given in its context of utterance, and the words are arrived at only through analysis and abstraction.
This debate relates to the atomistic vs holistic interpretation of linguistic fragments â a very similar debate is raging today between traditional semantics and cognitive linguistics, over the view whether words in themselves have semantic interpretations that can be composed to form larger strings. The cognitive linguistics view of semantics is that any definition of a word ultimately constrains its meanings because the actual meaning of a word can only be construed by considering a large number of individual contextual cues.
YÃÂska also defends the view, presented first in the lost text of Sakatayana that etymologically, most nouns have their origins in verbs. An example in English may be the noun origin, derived from the Latin originalis, which is ultimately based on the verb oriri, "to rise". This view is related to the position that in defining agent categories, behaviours are ontologically primary to, say, appearance. This was also a source for considerable debate for several centuries (see Sakatayana for details).