The Mà «lamadhyamakakÃÂrikà(), abbreviated as MMK, is the foundational text of the Madhyamaka school of MahÃÂyÃÂna Buddhist philosophy. It was composed by the Indian philosopher NÃÂgÃÂrjuna (around roughly 150 CE).
The MMK makes use of reductio arguments to show how all phenomena (dharmas) are empty of svabhava (which has been variously translated as essence, own-being, or inherent existence). The MMK is widely regarded as one of the most influential and widely studied texts in the history of Buddhist philosophy. The MMK had a major impact on the subsequent development of Buddhist thought, especially in Tibetan Buddhism and East Asian Buddhism.
The MMK is the work of NÃÂgÃÂrjuna, an Indian Buddhist monk and philosopher writing in Sanskrit. Very little is known about this figure, including exactly where he lived (somewhere in the Indian subcontinent), exactly what time (some time around the 2nd or 3rd century CE), and how many texts he composed. As with many early Indian historical figures, the biographical information which does exist is mainly hagiographical and from later periods. Most scholars agree that NÃÂgÃÂrjuna was a MahÃÂyÃÂna Buddhist who believed all things (dharmas) to be empty, or without an intrinsic existence and nature (svabhÃÂva). Beyond that, little can be said about him with certainty.
During the second and third centuries, MahÃÂyÃÂna ideas were held by a minority of Buddhists in India who lived within the communities of NikÃÂya Buddhism (i.e. non-MahÃÂyÃÂna Buddhism). Although all the major Buddhist schools at the time held that the person was empty of any eternal self or soul, some of the Abhidharma schools conceived of dharmas (transient phenomena, impermanent events) as ultimately real entities (dravyata) that had essences or "intrinsic natures" (svabhÃÂva). These intrinsic natures were seen as an independent part of a phenomenon, an inherent self-sufficiency that was not caused by something else. Abhidharma schools like the Vaibhasikas accepted this doctrine and did not see it as conflicting with the idea of dependent origination.
In the Mà «lamadhyamakakÃÂrikÃÂ, NÃÂgÃÂrjuna sought to refute these essentialist ideas found in Buddhist traditions such as Vaibhasika and Pudgalavada, as well as in Brahmanical schools of thought like Nyaya who also defended an essence based metaphysics. As such, his philosophy is also often termed NiḥsvabhÃÂvavÃÂda (the no svabhÃÂva doctrine).
NÃÂgÃÂrjuna's main contention with svabhÃÂva theories was that they contradicted the fundamental Buddhist doctrine of dependent origination (pratëtyasamutpÃÂda). Furthermore, essence theories are not in agreement with the MahÃÂyÃÂna sutras NÃÂgÃÂrjuna would have been familiar with. These sutras, particularly the PrajñÃÂpÃÂramitàsà «tras, teach a kind of comprehensive illusionist ontology that sees all dharmas, even nirvana and Buddhahood, as being empty and like an illusion. This illusionism was not totally new, since similar ideas about emptiness can be found in the early Buddhist texts (see: Samyutta Nikaya 22:95, as well as Samyukta ÃÂgama 335 and 297). However, the PrajñÃÂpÃÂramitàtexts are unique in seeing all dharmas, including nirvana, as empty and like illusions. The MMK cites the KaccÃÂnagotta Sutta, an early Buddhist text, from which it draws one of its major ideas regarding the middle way: the explanation of "right-view" as being a middle way between saying that "everything exists" (referring to the view of permanent existence: Pali: atthitÃÂ, Skt. astitva) and saying that "everything does not exist" (non-existence; Pali: n'atthitÃÂ, Skt nÃÂstitva). This middle way is then defined as the 12 principles (dvÃÂdaà ÂÃÂá¹ ga) of dependent origination.
Thus, NÃÂgÃÂrjuna's main project was to develop the philosophical position of the Buddha's teaching of dependent origination and not-self/emptiness as well as the ideas of the PrajñÃÂpÃÂramitàsà «tras in a logical and systematic manner by refuting svabhÃÂva theories and self theories.
The text is a series of 450 verses (karikas) organized into 27 chapters. The verses are aphoristic, often enigmatic, and extremely short. The text's arguments are presented in a highly compressed and concise form. This is because the text is a karika-style work. Such texts were meant to be memorized as an aid to learning by students. The text's arguments would be filled out through the oral commentary of a master. As such, the karikas are like a verse outline of the major philosophical arguments of an oral tradition.
The text seems to be mainly addressed to a Buddhist audience, particularly those who followed Abhidharma doctrines which held that dharmas are ultimately real and have svabhava (an intrinsic nature). The MMK takes up numerous Buddhist Abhidharma categories and ideas and examines them to show that they are empty and cannot have intrinsic nature. The MMK presents various arguments, mostly reductio in style, such as showing that an idea leads to an infinite regress.
The text begins with the following dedication verse:<blockquote>I salute the Fully Enlightened One, the best of orators, who taught the doctrine of dependent origination, according to which there is neither cessation nor origination, neither annihilation nor the eternal, neither singularity nor plurality, neither the coming nor the going [of any dharma, for the purpose of nirvÃÂá¹Âa characterized by] the auspicious cessation of hypostatization.</blockquote>The dedication sets out the main goal of the MMK, to eliminate conceptual proliferation, reification and hypostatization (prapañca), which expresses itself in different philosophical concepts such as essentialism, eternalism and annihilationism.
The first chapter discusses causation. The main thesis to be defended is given in the first verse:<blockquote>Not from itself, not from another, not from both, nor without cause: Never in any way is there any existing thing that has arisen.</blockquote>To put it another way, the main thesis which NÃÂgÃÂrjuna will defend here is that phenomena (dharmas) do not come into being in any of the following four ways:
The main view that MMK focuses on debating with is the second one, which is held by Buddhist Abhidharma theorists which put forth four main forms of conditionality: the primary cause (hetu-pratyaya), the objective support (ÃÂrambaá¹Âa-pratyaya), the proximate condition (samanantara-pratyaya), and the dominant condition (adhipati-pratyaya). The MMK takes up each one in order to refute them, arguing that, for those who hold that cause and effect are distinct, the producing relation can only be a conceptual construction.
The 27 chapters of the MMK are as follows:
The authenticity of the last two chapters is disputed, and they may have been later additions, not composed by NÃÂgÃÂrjuna. However, most ancient commentaries take them to be canonical.
Different scholars divide up the work into different main parts. According to Jay Garfield, the MMK can be divided into four main sections:
As a kÃÂrikÃÂ-style text, the Mà «lamadhyamakakÃÂrikàpresents only aphoristic, often enigmatic and extremely short verses, much like the sà «tra works of the various Hindu philosophical schools. Since they served primarily as pedagogical or mnemonic aids for teachers, commentaries were required to make the meaning of this type of text more explicit to the uninitiated reader.
According to the Indian author Avalokitavrata, eight commentaries were written on the MMK: Nagarjuna's self-commentary, and those of Buddhapalita, Candrakirti, Devasharman, Gunashri, Gunamati, Sthiramati, and Bhavaviveka. Not all of these have survived in full or in the original. Devasharman and Gunamati's commentaries only survive in fragments and nothing is known of Gunashri's.
The Indian commentary called the AkutobhayÃÂ, whose authorship is unknown, though is attributed to Nagarjuna in the tradition, is held by Ames to be the earliest commentary on the MMK. C.W. Huntington has suggested that this commentary may not have been considered a separate text, but instead may have been a set of notes which may go back to oral explanations of the root text by NÃÂgÃÂrjuna himself.
The earliest known commentary on the MMK by another author is preserved within the first Chinese translation of the KÃÂrikÃÂ, known as the "Middle Treatise" ( Zhong Lun), translated by Kumarajiva in 409. The author of this commentary is given as either "Blue Eyes" (; back translated as *VimalÃÂká¹£a) or *Piá¹ gala (). This is by far the best known commentary in the East Asian MÃÂdhyamaka tradition, forming one of the three commentaries that make up the Sanlun ("Three Treatise") school. An influential figure of the Sanlun school is JÃÂzàng (549âÂÂ623), who wrote a commentary on the Middle Treatise in Chinese, the Zhongguanlun shu ().
Other surviving and influential Indian commentaries on the MMK include BuddhapÃÂlita's (c. 470âÂÂ550) "Madhyamakvrétti" and BhÃÂviveka's (c. 500âÂÂ578) "PrajñÃÂpradëpa" (Lamp of Wisdom). These two survive in Tibetan translation.
The most influential commentary for Tibetan Buddhism is Candrakirti's (c. 7th century) PrasannapadÃÂ (Clear Words), which survives in Sanskrit and Tibetan translation.
An MMK commentary by the Indian Yogacara philosopher Sthiramati also survives in Chinese translation. This is the Commentary on the MahÃÂyÃÂna Madhyamaka (Dasheng zhongguan shilun 大ä¹Âä¸Âè§ÂéÂÂè«Â) which comments on the text from a Yogacara point of view.
In Tibet, various influential Tibetan language commentaries were written on the MMK. An early and important commentary is Ornament of Reason by Mabja Jangchub Tsöndrü (12th century). In the Gelug school, the key and definitive commentary is Je Tsongkhapa's (1357âÂÂ1419) Ocean of Reasoning. Meanwhile, in the Nyingma school, the most important commentaries are by more recent figures, mainly Ju Mipham and Khenpo Shenga.
During the modern and contemporary periods, new commentaries have been written from different perspectives. David Kalupahana, a Sri Lankan scholar, wrote a commentary (Kalupahana 1986) which interprets the text from an early Buddhist perspective. Meanwhile, Jay Garfield has published an English translation and commentary (Garfield 1995) which, though influenced by Tibetan interpretations, also attempts to explain the text to Western philosophers. Gudo Nishijima wrote a commentary from a Soto Zen perspective, while Siderits and Katsura have published a translation and commentary (2013) which mainly follow the classical Sanskrit tradition.
As noted by Ruegg, Western scholarship has given a broad variety of interpretations of Nagarjuna's Madhyamaka thought in the MMK, including: "nihilism, monism, irrationalism, misology, agnosticism, scepticism, criticism, dialectic, mysticism, acosmism, absolutism, relativism, nominalism, and linguistic analysis with therapeutic value".
Some of the main scholarly interpretations of Nagarjuna's MMK include the following:
Napper, Hopkins, have adopted Gelug prÃÂsaá¹ gika influenced interpretation. Jay Garfield has defended the use of modern logic to interpret Nagarjuna's MMK.