üOle, also called üOlekha or Black Mountain Monpa, is a moribund, possibly Sino-Tibetan language spoken natively by 1 person in the Black Mountains of Wangdue Phodrang and Trongsa Districts in western Bhutan. The term üOle refers to a clan of speakers.
According to the Ethnologue, üOlekha is spoken in the following locations of Bhutan.
Dialects are separated by the Black Mountains.
üOle forms a distinct branch of Sino-Tibetan/Tibeto-Burman. it is not closely related to Tshangla language of eastern Bhutan, also called "Monpa" and predating Dzongkha in the region, which belongs to a different branch of the family.
Gerber (2018) notes that Black Mountain Mönpa has had extensive contact with Gongduk before the arrival of East Bodish languages in Bhutan. The following comparative vocabulary table from Gerber (2020) compares Gongduk, Black Mountain Mönpa, and Bjokapakha, which is a divergent Tshangla variety.
Comparison of numerals:
Comparison of pronouns:
Black Mountain Monpa is spoken in at least 6 villages. The variety spoken in Rukha village, south-central Wangdi is known as üOlekha. Out of a population of 100-150 people (about 15 households) in Rukha village, there is only one elderly female fluent speaker and two semi-fluent speakers of üOlekha.
George van Driem (1992) reports a Western dialect (spoken in Rukha and Reti villages) and Eastern dialect (spoken in Cungseng village).
According to Tournadre & Suzuki (2023), there are three dialects, spoken by 500 speakers in Tronsa à ½Âà ¾²à ½¼à ½Âà ¼Âà ½¦à ½¢à ¼ and Wangdi PhodrâÂÂa à ½Âà ½Âà ½Âà ¼Âà ½ à ½Âà ½´à ½¦à ¼Âà ½Âà ½¼à ¼Âà ½Âà ¾²à ½Âà ¼ districts..
üOle was unknown beyond its immediate area until 1990, and is now highly endangered, and was originally assumed to be East Bodish. George van Driem described üOle as a remnant of the primordial population of the Black Mountains before the southward expansion of the ancient East Bodish tribes.
More recently, Gwendolyn Hyslop (2016), agreeing with van Driem, has suggested that üOle is an isolate branch of the Sino-Tibetan family that has been heavily influenced by East Bodish languages. Because of the small number of cognates with East Bodish languages once loans are identified, Blench and Post provisionally treat üOle as a language isolate, not just an isolate within Sino-Tibetan.
Additionally, üOle has two tones; high and low.
Hyslop (2016) notes that üOlekha has borrowed heavily from East Bodish and Tibetic languages, but also has a layer of native vocabulary items. Numerals are mostly borrowed from East Bodish languages, while body parts and nature words are borrowed from both Tibetic and East Bodish languages. Hyslop (2016) lists the following üOlekha words of clearly indigenous (non-borrowed) origin.
The pronouns and lexical items for all foraged plants are also of indigenous origin. Additionally, the central vowel /ä/ and voiced uvular fricative /ÃÂ/ are only found in non-borrowed words.
Words whose origin is not certain (i.e., may or may not be borrowed) are:
The cardinal numerals are: