Middle school in the Empire of Japan

The Old system secondary school was a type of secondary school in Japan that existed until the educational reforms after World War II. They were five-year schools for boys who had completed the six-year elementary school (尋常小学校, jinjō shōgakkō) and aimed to proceed to higher education institutions such as the old system higher schools (旧制高等学校, kyūsei kōtō gakkō). At the time, they were simply called secondary schools (中学校, chūgakkō).

The equivalent schools for girls were the girls' high schools (高等女学校, kōtō jogakkō), which were initially four-year and later five-year programs. After the war, many of these old system secondary schools and girls' high schools transitioned into general course high schools.

The similarly named old system secondary education school (旧制中等学校, kyūsei chūtō gakkō) is an overarching concept that includes old system secondary schools, girls' high schools, and vocational schools (実業学校, jitsugyō gakkō, equivalent to modern commercial high schools, etc.).

Overview

Old system secondary schools were established based on the Secondary School Order (Chokurei No. 15, 1886, and Chokurei No. 28, 1899). They were mandated to be established in each prefecture with at least one school. They existed until the post-World War II educational reforms and provided higher general education (equivalent to the latter stage of secondary education today, corresponding to the level of new system high schools or the later years of secondary education schools).

The admission requirement was graduation from elementary school (later the primary course of national schools). The standard course duration was five years, but it was shortened to four years by the Secondary Education School Order (Chokurei No. 36, 1943) enacted in 1943, before being restored to five years after the war.

Advancement to higher schools via "Four-year Graduation" (四修)

After the revision of the Higher School Order in 1918 and until the post-war educational reforms, students in their fourth year of the old system secondary school (five-year program) could advance to higher education institutions (such as higher schools, university preparatory courses, higher normal schools, specialized schools, the Imperial Japanese Army Academy, the Imperial Japanese Naval Academy, higher merchant marine schools, etc.) without waiting for graduation, effectively skipping the final year. This was known as 四修 (shishū, "four-year completion"). Advancing via 四修 to prestigious schools like the First Higher School, the Third Higher School, the Imperial Japanese Army Academy, the Imperial Japanese Naval Academy, or the Tokyo University of Commerce Preparatory Course was considered a mark of academic excellence. The proportion of 四修 students among all entrants to the nation's higher schools (eventually 38 schools) remained at just under 20%.

Advancement to Normal School after completing Secondary School Year 2

Students could enter a Normal School after completing the second year of the old system secondary school (five-year program).

History

• 4 September 1872 (Lunar calendar: 2nd day of the 8th month, Meiji 5) – With the promulgation of the Education System Order, secondary schools (中学校, chÅ«gakkō) were established as institutions to teach general subjects to students who had completed elementary school.
• Industrial schools, commercial schools, interpreter schools, agricultural schools, and miscellaneous people's schools were designated as types of secondary schools.
• They were divided into two stages: Upper Secondary (修業年限: 3 years, ages 17 to 19) and Lower Secondary (修業年限: 3 years, ages 14 to 16).
• Schools using traditional textbooks or teaching foreign languages or medicine without following the standard academic sequence were all termed Irregular Secondary Schools (変則中学, hensoku chÅ«gaku).
• The University South School was renamed "First Secondary School of the First University District"; the Osaka Kaiseijo became "First Secondary School of the Fourth University District"; the Nagasaki Kōunkan became "First Secondary School of the Sixth University District"; and the leading Western studies school in Tokyo became "Second Secondary School of the First University District."
• Individuals with a secondary school teaching license teaching secondary subjects in their private residence were termed "Secondary Private Tutors" (中学私塾, chÅ«gaku shijuku); those without a license were termed "Home Tutors" (家塾, kajuku).
• Schools with foreign teachers were considered secondary schools unless they taught university-level subjects.
• Institutions offering studies during leisure time for occupations were termed "Miscellaneous People's Schools" (諸民学校, shomin gakkō), similar to later vocational continuation schools.
• "Secondary School Curriculum Outline" and "Secondary School Curriculum for Foreign Teacher Instruction" (for students proceeding to university or specialized schools) were established.
• 23 May 1878 (Meiji 11) – The Secondary School Curriculum Outline was abolished.
• 29 September 1879 (Meiji 12) – The Education System Order was abolished and the Education Order was promulgated.
• July 1881 (Meiji 14) – "Secondary School Curriculum Guidelines" were established.
• Admission required completion of the intermediate course of elementary school.
• A two-stage system of Lower Secondary Course (修業年限4å¹´) and Higher Secondary Course (修業年限2å¹´) was adopted.
• The secondary school curriculum was established.
• January 1884 (Meiji 17) – "Secondary School General Rules" were established, defining the purpose, establishment, and management of secondary schools.
• 10 April 1886 (Meiji 19) – With the promulgation of the Secondary School Order, Higher Secondary Schools (高等中学校, kōtō chÅ«gakkō) and Ordinary Secondary Schools (尋常中学校, jinjō chÅ«gakkō) were established.
• Higher Secondary Schools
• Managed by the Minister of Education, five schools were to be established nationwide. Expenses were to be covered by the national treasury and local taxes from prefectures within their districts.
• Ordinary Secondary Schools
• Could be established by each prefecture, but those funded or subsidized by local taxes were limited to one per prefecture. They could not be established using ward/town/village funds. (One school per prefecture principle)
• The course duration was 5 years. Divided into levels 1 to 5, each level representing one year of study.
• Admission required being 12 years or older and having graduated from an elementary school providing secondary school preparation or another equivalent school.
• Subjects included 15 general subjects from ethics onwards, with a second foreign language and agriculture as electives. With approval from the Minister of Education, commercial or industrial courses could also be established based on local conditions.
• 14 December 1891 (Meiji 24) – Partial revision of the Secondary School Order relaxed the conditions for establishing Ordinary Secondary Schools.
• Depending on local conditions, several Ordinary Secondary Schools could be established in a prefecture. It was also permissible to have none.
• Districts/cities/towns/villages could establish Ordinary Secondary Schools if it did not hinder the provision of elementary education in their area.
• Ordinary Secondary Schools could establish specialized courses in agriculture, industry, commerce, etc.
• 1893 (Meiji 27)
• 1 March – Establishment of practical courses became possible.
• 15 June – The Ordinary Secondary School Practical Course Regulations were established, allowing the establishment of Practical Course Secondary Schools that taught specialized practical subjects from the first year, depending on local circumstances.
• 25 June – With the promulgation of the Higher School Order, the former Higher Secondary Schools, which occupied the upper stage, were separated as Higher Schools, leaving secondary schools as only Ordinary Secondary Schools.
• 7 February 1899 (Meiji 32) – The Secondary School Order was comprehensively revised, and the name Ordinary Secondary School was changed to simply Secondary School (中学校, chÅ«gakkō).
• Its purpose was defined as "providing the necessary higher general education for boys."
• The course duration was set at 5 years, and it became possible to establish a supplementary course of up to one year.
• Admission required being 12 years or older and having completed the second-year course of higher elementary school.
• Regarding establishment, prefectures were obligated to "establish at least one secondary school." The Minister of Education could order a prefecture to establish additional schools if deemed necessary, showing a proactive stance towards secondary school establishment.
• Districts/cities/towns/villages and town/village school associations were more easily permitted to establish secondary schools.
• With permission from the Minister of Education, one branch school per school could be established.
• 18 July 1907 (Meiji 40) – Partial revision of the Secondary School Order.
• Following the extension of compulsory education, the admission requirement was changed to being 12 years or older and a graduate of ordinary elementary school (6 years).
• 7 February 1919 (Taishō 8) – Partial revision of the Secondary School Order stipulated the following:
• The establishment bodies for secondary schools were expanded to include city/town/village school associations.
• Secondary schools could establish a preparatory course (修業年限2å¹´). Admission to this course required academic ability deemed equivalent to or higher than elementary school graduates.
• Admission age for the preparatory course was set at 10 years or older, requiring completion of the 4th year of ordinary elementary school.
• Regarding admission to the main secondary school course, it permitted the examination of students who had completed the 5th year of ordinary elementary school, were academically excellent, physically well-developed, and certified by the school principal as capable of completing the secondary course.
• 10 January 1931 (Shōwa 6) – Revision of the Secondary School Order Enforcement Regulations introduced a system of organizing first and second type courses for upper grades (year 3 and above), allowing students to choose one.
• First Type Course – Aimed at students entering employment immediately after graduation, focusing on vocational subjects and science.
• Second Type Course – Aimed at students proceeding to higher education, focusing on foreign languages and mathematics.
• 1 April 1941 (Shōwa 16) – With the enforcement of the National School Order, the Secondary School Order was partially revised.
• Admission requirement changed to being 12 years or older and having completed the primary course of National School (the 6-year ordinary elementary school course) or equivalent.
• 1943 (Shōwa 18) – The Secondary Education School Order unified secondary schools, girls' high schools, and vocational schools under the same system as Secondary Education Schools (old system) (中等学校（旧制）, chÅ«tō gakkō (kyÅ«sei)).
• The course duration was shortened to 4 years.
• The First and Second Type Courses were abolished.
• Establishment of evening courses (修業年限3å¹´) was permitted.
• The previous supplementary and preparatory courses were abolished, replaced by a practical course of up to one year.
• Transfer between secondary schools, transfer from secondary schools to vocational schools, and transfer of vocational school students in year 3 or below to secondary schools were permitted.
• 1 April 1944 (Shōwa 19) – Due to the Wartime Emergency Education Measures Policy decided by the cabinet the previous year, the implementation of the 4-year course was brought forward.
• Applied to those who became 4th-year students at this time (entrants in 1941), with implementation in March 1945 when they completed the 4th year.
• 1945 (Shōwa 20)
• March – The Decisive Battle Education Measures Outline was decided by the cabinet, leading to the suspension of classes for the 1945 academic year (from April 1945 to March 1946).
• 22 May – The Wartime Education Order was promulgated, legally authorizing the indefinite suspension of classes.
• 15 August – End of the war.
• 21 August – The Ministry of Education decided to abolish the Wartime Education Order, and classes were to resume from September.
• 12 September – The Ministry of Education issued instructions on urgent matters for transitioning from wartime to peacetime education.
• 1946 (Shōwa 21) – The course duration was restored to 5 years. Evening courses changed to 4 years.
• 1 April 1947 (Shōwa 22) – Educational reforms (implementation of the 6-3 system, establishment of new system lower secondary schools)
• Student recruitment for old system secondary schools was stopped.
• New system lower secondary schools (present-day lower secondary schools) were established alongside old schools. Students who had completed years 1 and 2 of old system secondary schools were accommodated as years 2 and 3 of the new lower secondary schools.
• These attached lower secondary schools were temporary transitional measures, so no new student recruitment occurred (no year 1 students), resulting in lower secondary schools with only years 2 and 3. However, many private schools continued recruitment and some survive today as combined junior-senior high schools.
• Students who had completed years 3 and 4 of old system secondary schools remained as years 4 and 5 of the old system schools (they could also graduate after 4 years).
• 1 April 1948 (Shōwa 23) – Educational reforms (implementation of the 6-3-3 system, establishment of new system upper secondary schools)
• Old system secondary schools were abolished, and new system upper secondary schools (present-day high schools) were established. Most old system secondary schools became all-boys high schools.
• Graduates of old system secondary schools (those wishing to continue) were enrolled as year 3 of new high schools; students who had completed year 4 of old system schools were enrolled as year 2.
• Graduates of the attached lower secondary schools (students who entered old system secondary schools in 1945) became year 1 of new high schools.
• The attached lower secondary schools were inherited by the new upper secondary schools, leaving only the year 3 students (the last entrants to old system secondary schools in 1946) with no year 1 or 2 students. However, many private schools continued recruitment and survive today as combined junior-senior high schools.
• After 1948 (Shōwa 23) – Due to the reorganization of public high schools under the Three High School Principles, coeducation gradually progressed through mergers.
• Mergers with high schools originating from girls' high schools and vocational schools led to a gradual increase in coeducational comprehensive high schools.
• Several years after becoming comprehensive high schools, vocational departments (industrial, agricultural, commercial) often separated to become independent vocational high schools.
• Some schools avoided merger and remain all-boys schools to this day (many exist in northern Kantō regions like Gunma, Saitama, and Tochigi).
• Most private old system secondary schools continued as all-boys high schools.
• 31 March 1949 (Shōwa 24) – The last graduates (entrants to old system secondary schools in 1946) were sent off, and the attached lower secondary schools were abolished. Their graduates became year 1 of new high schools.
• Many attached lower secondary schools of private high schools continued, remaining as combined junior-senior high schools.

Educational Reforms and Old System Secondary Schools

With the educational reforms of April 1947, the current lower secondary school system was established. Prefectural and municipal old system secondary schools stopped recruitment, while most private and national schools established lower secondary schools under the new system. As a temporary measure for the transition, new lower secondary schools were also attached to prefectural and municipal old system schools (hereafter, attached schools), accommodating students who were in years 1 and 2 of the old system as of March 1947, who became years 2 and 3 of the attached schools.

Old system secondary schools were abolished at the end of March 1948, and new upper secondary schools were established in April. The attached schools were inherited by the new high schools. Graduates of the attached schools became high school year 1, students who were in old system year 4 as of March became year 2, and old system graduates who wished to continue were enrolled in year 3. These attached schools were abolished on 31 March 1949 with the graduation of the last entrants to the old system schools.

Transition from Old System Secondary Schools to New System Upper Secondary Schools

Old system secondary schools were converted into new system upper secondary schools under the Fundamental Law of Education and School Education Law established following democratic policies during the Allied occupation. Many public schools became coeducational. However, coeducation was not necessarily implemented thoroughly in some regions (e.g., northern Kantō, Tōhoku). Furthermore, most private schools transitioned to new system junior and senior high schools while remaining single-sex. Some schools merged with nearby old system secondary schools or girls' schools during the conversion, or exchanged students and teachers. Note that public single-sex schools in the Tōhoku region became coeducational in the 21st century.

After the 1947 reforms, high schools that were successors to old system secondary schools often retained their status as regional academic leaders. However, over time, changes in transportation, the establishment of new schools, and reforms that negated or made it difficult to maintain traditions led to a decline in status for many. For instance, in regions that introduced comprehensive selection or school grouping systems, many affected public high schools saw a decline in academic performance as high-achieving students avoided them, leading to a significant rise in the academic results of private high schools.

Enrollment Rate

The table on the right shows the number of students by parental occupation at the old system Tokyo Higher Normal School Attached Secondary School (present-day University of Tsukuba Attached Junior & Senior High School) as of 1 May 1920.

The old system secondary school, defined by the 1899 revised Secondary School Order as having the purpose "to provide the necessary higher general education for boys," served as a gateway for the elite, and its enrollment rate was very low. This was because many boys were needed as immediate manpower for agriculture, industry, and military service, necessitating restriction of the elite path of attending old system secondary school.

In the Meiji period, those advancing to secondary and higher education were mostly limited to the peerage, upper-class former samurai (士族, shizoku), landowners, wealthy merchants, and the emerging bourgeois and petit bourgeois classes. For example, an article about a boating accident (occurred 30 April 1905, reported in the Saga Newspaper, 3 May 1905, morning edition, page 2) involving the old system Karatsu Secondary School (present-day Saga Prefectural Karatsu Higashi Junior & Senior High School) boat club listed "8 dead, 1 survivor: 5 former samurai, 3 commoners (平民, heimin), 1 unknown."

During the era of Taishō Democracy, secondary school attendance began to spread among ordinary citizens. After World War I, the enthusiasm for attending old system secondary education schools (secondary schools, girls' high schools, vocational schools) among urban residents' children rapidly increased, but it was still largely "out of reach" for the general populace.

The monthly salary of elementary school teachers, the core of the intelligentsia at the time, was around 46 yen in 1929, while the tuition and direct expenses alone for the first year at municipal secondary schools in Tokyo, such as Tokyo First Municipal Secondary School (present-day Chiyoda Ward Kudan Secondary Education School), amounted to 146 yen 19 sen. Consequently, as many as one-third of those who managed to enter had to drop out midway.

The then Ministry of Education viewed the situation as follows: <blockquote> "Among those who drop out midway, about one-third are due to other reasons. This group includes some who failed and repeated a grade, but the majority are those who entered aimlessly and haphazardly, for which their parents are responsible. If parents' thinking became more realistic and they awakened to the folly of careless enrollment, reducing the number of dropouts, today's 'examination hell' would be significantly alleviated."<br/>– Yomiuri Shimbun, 10 December 1929 </blockquote>

Furthermore, Yamakawa Hiroshi, who served as principal of the Tokyo Higher Normal School (present-day University of Tsukuba) and its attached schools (present-day University of Tsukuba Elementary School and University of Tsukuba Attached Junior & Senior High School), as well as principal of the Tokyo Women's Higher Normal School (present-day Ochanomizu University), said the following in 1887 regarding the attached schools of the Higher Normal School: <blockquote> "The attached schools are meant to be models for schools nationwide. However, if they lack discipline and are disorderly, it won't do. To reform them, you must strive. For that purpose, it is acceptable to order all students to withdraw, or to triple the tuition to discourage existing students from remaining at this school."<br/> (At the time, tuition was 50 sen, and there were over 600 students. Even after the tuition hike, almost all students wished to remain, so ample funds were generated, allowing the recruitment of excellent teachers and greatly revitalizing the school's atmosphere.)<br/>– Tōin Association 20th Anniversary Commemorative Issue, December 1910 (Meiji 43) </blockquote>

In other words, he believed that children of low-income ordinary people should not attend secondary school.

Ironically, the wartime boom from the Second Sino-Japanese War made it possible for ordinary people to attend secondary school. Even then, the enrollment rate for old system secondary education schools was only around 13%, and specifically for secondary school entrants, the rate was about 8%. In rural areas, entrants were mainly children of landowners, with only one or two per village. It was common for second and third sons in farming families to finish six years of elementary school or two years of higher elementary school and then go to work in town factories.

In contrast, there were more girls' high schools than secondary schools, providing girls with wider access to general secondary education. This was likely because there was no need to restrict girls' education, as social advancement was limited for them, and so-called "good wife and wise mother" education matched societal expectations.

Related Works

• Botchan – by Natsume Sōseki, 1906
• Kuchibue (The Whistle) – by Orikuchi Shinobu, 1914
• Osoroshiki Shigatsu Baka (The Terrifying April Fool) – by Yokomizo Seishi, 1921. Set in a boarding house dormitory.
• Uwasa to Shinsō (Rumor and Truth) – by Kuzan Jirō, 1923
• How Do You Live? – by Yoshino Genzaburō, 1937. The protagonist is a second-year student. An autobiographical life philosophy by an author who graduated from the old system Tokyo Higher Normal School Attached Secondary School.
• Kessen no Ōzora e (To the Decisive Battle Skies) – (Toho, 1943). The protagonist is a student at (old system Tsuchiura Secondary School).
• Kenka erejii (Fighting Elegy) – directed by Seijun Suzuki, 1966. Features a delinquent protagonist.
• Natsukusa Fuyushio (Summer Grass, Winter Waves) – by Yasushi Inoue, 1966. An autobiographical novel (old system Numazu Secondary School).
• Hassai Sensei (Teacher Hassai) – 1987. An NHK morning television drama series.
• Suntory Japanese Tea Commercial "Shiosai-hen" (Sound of the Waves), 2003
• Hochōtore, Mae e! Fukada Shōnen no Sensō to Koi (Eyes Right, Forward! The War and Love of Young Fukada) – by Yusuke Fukada, 2007. An autobiographical novel (old system private Gyosei Secondary School).

Notes

References

Bibliography

See also

• Higher elementary school
• Educational reforms – explanation of old system school organization

External links

• Centennial History of the Education System – MEXT