Macro-Jê (also spelled Macro-Gê) is a medium-sized language family in South America, mostly in Brazil but also in the ChiquitanÃÂa region in Santa Cruz, Bolivia. It is centered on the Jê language family, with most other branches currently being single languages due to extinctions.
The Macro-Jê family was first proposed in 1926, and has undergone moderate modifications since then.
Eduardo Ribeiro of the University of Chicago finds no evidence to classify Fulniô (Yatê) and Guató as Macro-Jê, pace Kaufman, nor OtÃÂ, pace Greenberg. Ribeiro does include Chiquitano, pace Rodrigues.
Glottolog accepts a 'Nuclear Macro-Je' consisting of Jean, Karaja, Krenak-Maxakalian, Ofaie, Rikbaktsa, and Yabutian (Jabuti), with extinct Jeicó unclassified within the family. Lexical parallels with Kamakanan and Purian have yet to be corroborated with reconstructions; the similarities with Purian disappear once Coropo is reclassified as Maxakalian. It notes suggestive grammatical similarities with Bororoan, Kariri, and Chiquitano, of the kind also shared with Tupian and Cariban, but little lexical evidence.
These languages share irregular morphology with the Tupi and Carib families, and Rodrigues (2000) and Ribeiro connect them all as a JeâÂÂTupiâÂÂCarib family.
Pache (2018) suggests a distant genetic relationship between Macro-Jê and Chibchan.
Nikulin (2020) proposes the following internal classification of Macro-Jê:
Nikulin (2020) does not accept the following languages and language families as part of Macro-Jê.
However, Nikulin (2023) considers Chiquitano to be a Macro-Jê language.
Jolkesky (2016) proposes the following internal classification of Macro-Jê:
Kaufman (1990) finds the proposal "probable".
Proto-Macro-Jê is notable for having relatively few consonants and a large vocalic inventory. There are also complex onsets with rhotics, as well as contrastive nasalization for vowels.
Phonological inventory of Proto-Macro-Jê as reconstructed by Nikulin (2020):
For a list of Proto-Macro-Jê reconstructions by Nikulin (2020), see the corresponding .
Many Macro-Jê languages have been in contact with various languages of the TupÃÂ-Guaranàfamily, which resulted in lexical borrowings. For instance, Ribeiro (2012) finds a number of Apyãwa loanwords in Karajá (such as bèhyra 'carrying basket', kòmỹdawyra andu beans', hãrara 'macaw (sp.)', tarawè 'parakeet (sp.)', txakohi 'Txakohi ceremonial mask', hyty 'garbage (Javaé dialect)') as well as several Karajá loans in Apyãwa (tãtã 'banana', tori 'White man', marara 'turtle stew', irãwore 'Irabure ceremonial mask'), Parakanã, and Asurinàof Trocará (sata 'banana', toria 'White man'). Loans from one of the LÃÂngua Geral varieties (LÃÂngua Geral Paulista or LÃÂngua Geral Amazônica) have been found in Karajá (jykyra 'salt', mỹkawa 'firearm', brùrè 'hoe', kòmỹta 'beans', mabèra 'paper (Xambioá dialect)', étajuwa 'money (dated)'), Maxakalà(ãmãnex 'priest', tãyà ©mak 'money', kãmãnok 'horse', tapayõg 'Black man'), Ritual Maxakalà(kõnõméy 'boy', kõyãg 'woman', petup 'tobacco', pakõm 'banana', tapuux 'foreigner', xetukxeka 'potato'), and Krenak (tuà  'flea', krai 'non-Indigenous person, foreigner'). Chiquitano has borrowed extensively from an unidentified TupÃÂ-Guaranàvariety; one example is Chiquitano takones [takoÃÂnÃÂs] 'sugarcane', borrowed from a form close to Paraguayan Guaranàtakuare'ẽ 'sugarcane'.
Some Macro-Jê languages from different branches have secondarily contacted with each other, also resulting in lexical loans. Ribeiro (2012), for instance, identifies several Karajá loans in Mẽbêngôkre, especially in the dialect spoken by the Xikrin group. These loans are thought to have entered Mẽbêngôkre from the variety spoken by the Xambioá group of the Karajá people. Examples include warikoko (Kayapó dialect) or watkoko (Xikrin dialect) 'tobacco pipe', rara 'kind of basket', wiwi 'song, chant', bikwa 'relative, friend', bero 'puba flour', borrowed from Karajá werikòkò, lala, wii, bikòwa, bèrò.
Loanwords from Brazilian Portuguese are found in many, if not all, Macro-Jê languages spoken in Brazil. Examples from Maxakalàinclude kapex 'coffee', komenok 'blanket', kapitõg 'captain', pẽyõg 'beans', mug 'bank', tenemiyam 'TV' (borrowed from Portuguese café, cobertor, capitão, feijão, banco, televisão); in Karajá, Ribeiro (2012) documents the Portuguese loans nieru 'money' and maritò 'suit, jacket' (from dinheiro, paletó), among others.
There is a significant number of loanwords from Chiquitano or from an extinct variety close to Chiquitano in Camba Spanish, including bi 'genipa', masi 'squirrel', peni 'lizard', peta 'turtle, tortoise', jachi 'chicha leftover', jichi 'worm; jichi spirit', among many others.
Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with Arawakan languages due to contact.