A kumiho or gumiho () is a creature that appears in the folktales of East Asia and legends of Korea. It is similar to the Chinese , the Japanese and the Vietnamese .
Kumiho is a term that originally referred to a magical fox appearing in Korean novels of the Joseon dynasty, or was used pejoratively in historical records of the same period to denounce treacherous officials. In modern Korea, the designation kumiho has been broadened to encompass all fox spirits described in traditional Korean sources.
In Korean colloquial usage, gumiho is often applied to describe a person (especially a woman) regarded as sly or cunning. The more widely-used term Kumiho follows the McCuneâÂÂReischauer romanization system, whereas the official romanization of Korean is Gumiho, which is also closer to the actual Korean pronunciation.
In South Korea, the term gumiho is commonly used to refer to the mythical nine-tailed fox, with ho (çÂÂ) being the Sino-Korean reading of the Chinese character for "fox." In contrast, North Korea refers to the creature as gumiyeowoo, using yeowoo, the native Korean word for "fox." While ho is typically reserved for mythological or literary contexts in South Korea, South Koreans also use yeowooâÂÂjust like North Koreans doâÂÂin everyday language to refer to real, biological foxes. However, even the word yeowoo, which usually denotes a wild fox, carries a subtle nuance of cunning or eeriness, and this term often appears in names referring to Korean fox spirits.
Due to the widespread use of the term Kumiho, modern Koreans often refer to all fox spirits by this name; however, this represents a typical case of conflation. In fact, Korean folklore features a variety of fox spirits, including bul-yeowoo (ë¶Âì“°, "fire fox"), baeg-yeowoo (백쓰, "white fox"), maegu (매구, "fox demon"), and hogwi (øê·Â, "fox ghost"), all of which, like kumiho, have also been employed in a derogatory sense when referring to women. As these various names indicate, the types of foxes appearing in Korean mythology are diverse and are not limited to the nine-tailed fox (kumiho).
In Korean myth, foxes are primarily depicted as deceptive, malevolent, and tragic beings, though there are rare cases where they are portrayed as benevolent toward humans or as deities governing mountains.
They are often portrayed in the form of heretical Buddhist monks or beautiful women and are sometimes depicted as monsters that torment and threaten dragons, which are considered sacred in Korean mythology. In Korean mythology, which is deeply influenced by Buddhism, the dragon is depicted as a divine being that protects the kingdom, whereas its adversary, the fox, is portrayed as a force that disturbs the kingdom or as a harbinger of the kingdomâÂÂs downfall. In certain tale, the fox spirit is even described as defeating multiple dragons, emphasizing its anti-divine characteristics. At the same time, such accounts suggest that although the fox was not venerated as a sacred creature like the dragon, it was nevertheless regarded in Korea as possessing transcendent powers comparable to those of dragons.
In Korean toponymy, yeougogae () is among the most common place names for mountain passes. Passes bearing the name "fox" are often associated with local folktales or legends about fox spirits.
In Korean tradition, the fox spirit appears in early state myths in forms that reflect syncretism with Buddhism and indigenous shamanistic beliefs. During the Goryeo period, however, the status of the fox spirit had already begun to decline. Although certain myths recorded at that time portray the fox in a sacred light, these accounts are generally considered quotations or preservations of earlier Silla beliefs rather than reflections of Goryeo religious culture itself. Most narratives about fox spirits written during the Goryeo period depict them as ominous or inauspicious beings. Unlike in Japan, where fox spirits were integrated positively into Buddhism, the fox in Goryeo Korea does not appear to have undergone such a synthesis.
By the Joseon period, under the influence of Confucian thought, the religious status of the fox spirit declined even further. Confucian ideology discouraged attributing significance to fictional or supernatural beings, and its hierarchical worldview often placed animals below humans in moral and ontological value. As a result, in popular perception and oral tradition, the fox spirit came to be portrayed increasingly as a deceptive, malevolent, or tragic being. However, in literary contexts, depictions of fox spirits became more varied with the introduction of Chinese fantasy fiction, and Joseon-era writers portrayed fox spirits through a range of symbolic meanings rather than a single moral type.
Unlike in China and Japan, where fox spirits were at times associated with religious functions or divine status, evidence for a comparable role in Korea is limited, with notable examples appearing only in the mythology of the ancient kingdom of Silla. In Japan, fox spirits were integrated into the state-sanctioned religious framework, and in China, extensive mythological traditions allowed for the widespread dissemination of fox spirit stories. But by contrast, due to the aforementioned religious and social currents in Korea that were unfavorable toward fox spirits, the development of Korean fox spirit narratives inevitably faced considerable constraints. Consequently, premodern Korean fox spirit traditions remained limited in both quantity and quality compared to those found in Japan or China.
However, this assessment is relative; when considered in absolute terms, Korea possesses a substantial corpus of fox spirit legends, and foxes hold a notable place as supernatural beings within the countryâÂÂs folklore tradition. Since most surviving Korean fox spirit traditions depict the fox as a demonic being, the general perception of the Korean fox spirit is that it is an evil or devilish entity. Many early foreign studies consequently misunderstood the Korean fox spirit as possessing exclusively demonic traits, and even perceptions within Korea have not substantially diverged from this view. Yet, upon closer examination of traditional myths, a minority of Korean folktales present the fox in a neutral or sacred light, in which it aids or rewards humans.
South Korea, as a country with an active media industry, frequently produces works based on indigenous legends, regardless of the fact that Christianity is the predominant religion in contemporary Korean society. The fox spirit is among the motifs employed in such media. The character Kumiho, featured in the horror anthology series Jeonseol-ui Gohyang ("Hometown of Legends") aired by the public broadcaster KBS, became widely recognized by Korean audiences and has served as a source of inspiration for cultural creators. Furthermore, the traditions of the kumiho and fox spirits also serve as material for contemporary illustrated storybooks. In addition, the story of the Kumiho is further evolving as new interpretations are created. This is due to Korean mythology not being centralized thus allowing more creative freedom from the individual when creating a story based on myth.
The motif of the Kumiho desiring to become human, while not entirely absent in premodern periods, was relatively rare, though it appeared during the Joseon dynasty in tales such as The Fox Sister, The Tale of Palbaek, The Fox Den (although this features a 6 tailed fox named Banya) and Myeonghaengjeong Uirok. In modern Korean mythology, however, this theme is more prominent, with repeated reinterpretations of fox-spirit narratives reinforcing the image of the Kumiho striving for humanity. Scholars suggest that the emergence of this motif may be attributed to multiple factors, including cultural reactions against the Joseon-era disdain for fox tales, feminist aspirations to liberate Korean women, who had long been marginalized and disparaged through the derogatory connotations associated with the term kumiho, and broader influences from Chinese, Japanese, and Korean folkloreâÂÂsuch as The Man and the White Snake, Yuki-Onna, and UngnyeoâÂÂwhich collectively contributed to the development of the modern interpretation.
As the kumiho has frequently appeared in South Korean media, it has come to be represented in diverse ways, including more sympathetic portrayals. These positive reinterpretations extend not only to the kumiho itself but also to the fox as an animal, sparking renewed public interest in indigenous fox-spirit folklore. This growing interest has led to the rediscovery of older fox-spirit tales, which, when incorporated into newly created kumiho media, sustain a cyclical process of modern reinterpretation and the revival of ancient folklore.
In September 2022, a South Korean distilled soju(Distilled Liquor) brand named Saero was released, featuring the kumiho as its brand symbol. The use of the kumiho as the emblem of a commonly consumed distilled soju suggests that Kumiho has become significantly more familiar and approachable to the general South Korean public.
In contrast, the portrayal of the fox in North Korean media remains largely uniform and negative. During the Cold War, both North and South Korea frequently employed animal metaphors in their mutual propaganda, with each side comparing the other to foxes or jackals. North Korea, however, has continued to reproduce such imagery well into the 21st century. In North Korean dramas, films, and other media, the fox typically symbolizes capitalism, imperialism, selfishness, or divisive behavior. Beyond these limited functions, foxes rarely appear, as state propaganda has already attached a negative connotation to the animal. Assigning alternative meanings would potentially undermine propaganda objectives; therefore, the image of the fox in North Korea remains consistently negative.
Furthermore, When North Korea undertook state-sponsored projects to compile Korean folktales, a rigid class-based and socialist framework was applied, leading to the exclusion of fantastical or frightening stories. This selective approach limited the transmission of traditional fox spirit narratives. Unlike in South Korea, where the kumiho continues to evolve through modern reinterpretations, in North Korea the figure neither develops multifaceted qualities nor benefits from the rediscovery of older traditions, which also restricts the possibility of modern adaptations. As a result, kumiho is depicted almost exclusively as a demonic entity. In the 2021 animated film The Devil's Conqueror (Eoksoe Defeats Devil, ì ë§Â를 ì´긴 ìµì ), for example, the devil character is identified with the kumiho.
The sources of the fox spirit's story that appeared in ancient Korean history are Samgugyusa(ä¸ÂÃ¥ÂÂéºäºÂ, Memorabilia of the Three Kingdoms) and Samguksagi(ä¸ÂÃ¥ÂÂå²è¨Â, History of the Three Kingdoms).
Fox spirits depicted as active in ancient Korean kingdoms are usually described as having white fur, the ability to transform into humans, and possessing cunning magical powers. However, historical records from ancient Korean history do not specifically describe these fox spirits as having nine tails. The nine-tailed fox spirit does not appear in Korean historical records until the Goryeo period and later.
In ancient Korean mythology, foxes are typically depicted as malevolent spirits with white fur. But also, there is a singular account describing a sacred fox spirit with black fur.
This passage, attributed to Choi Chiwon, a government official of the ancient kingdom of Silla in the 9th century, reflects the belief that animals could transform into humans. The fox, in particular, was believed to have the ability to become a beautiful woman. This demonstrates the perception of foxes and animals in ancient Korean society.
The Samguk Sagi, a historical text detailing the ancient Korean kingdoms, includes references to a mysterious and ominous creature known as the Baeg-yeowoo(white fox), which is often associated with bad omens. Despite its ominous reputation, the fur of an albino white fox was considered a rare and valuable item.
The King of Goguryeo, while hunting, came across a Baeg-yeowoo and ordered a shaman to interpret what omen this white fox might represent. The shaman explained that foxes were traditionally considered ominous creatures, and since this one was white, it was even more sinister. He suggested that the heavenly gods were showing a bad omen through this white fox spirit and that the king needed to reflect on his actions. Enraged by these words, the king had the shaman executed on the spot.
When the Baekje Kingdom and the Goguryeo Kingdom were nearing their fall to the Silla Kingdom, foxes and other animals were reported to have entered the royal palaces of each kingdom. In the spring of the year before the fall of Baekje, a group of foxes entered the Baekje royal palace, and among them, Baeg-yeowoo (a white fox) was seen sitting on the desk of the highest official.
In one rare case, the Heuk-yeoyoo(black fox) is depicted as a sacred being that assists humans. This fox spirit appears in the legend of the eminent Silla monk Won-Gwang (Ã¥ÂÂå Â, 555âÂÂ638), where it serves as a guide and helper.
This heuk-yeowoo(black fox) is a typical example of a mountain god in Korean mythology. Korean mythology also holds the belief that when an animal attains enlightenment and reaches the realm of the divine, it becomes a mountain spirit.
In Korean folklore, there are narratives in which an aged dragon is threatened by a fox. A hero appears, defeats the fox, and rescues the old dragon, who in return grants his daughter in marriage to the hero. The two tales to be discussed below share this same plot.
The Geotaji tale is set in the reign of Queen Jinseong of Silla and is believed to have influenced the later Jakjegeon narrative. The Jakjegeon story is considered an expanded version of the original Geotaji tale, incorporating additional foundation myth elements.
These tales correspond to the motif found in European mythology in which hero slays a dragon (or serpent) to save a kingdom and, as a reward, marries a princess. In this comparison, Geotaji and Jakjegà Ân parallels the European dragon-slayer (such as Perseus), the Dragon King corresponds to a royal figure, the dragon princess to a European princess, and the monstrous fox to the dragon(or serpent).Furthermore, the theme in which a hero connected with a dragon overcomes a monstrous fox and subsequently becomes a founding ancestor shows similarities to the foundation myth of Vietnam.
A later short story, Wang Sujae Married the Daughter of the Dragon King (çÂÂç§ÂæÂÂç¨女åÂÂ德說), which largely inherits the plot of these narratives, depicts the fox as a 3,000-year-old nine-tailed fox capable of transforming into a beautiful woman.
Queen Seondeok of Silla was once struck by an illness, and a monk named Beopcheok was called to diagnose her condition. However, despite his efforts, her illness did not improve. The royal court then summoned another monk, Milbon, who began reciting scriptures. As he did so, a yukcheonjang (a type of monk's weapon) struck a hidden Old fox and Beopcheok, causing them to fall to the ground below the courtyard. After this event, Queen SeondeokâÂÂs illness was said to have been miraculously cured. It is not directly described in this story, but from the circumstances described by the story, a monk named Beopchuk appears to have colluded with an old fox and worsened the Queen's condition.
Bihyeongnyang, a legendary figure in Silla, was renowned for his ability to command and control divine beings. One of his subordinates, Gildal, became disillusioned with the hard labor and, feeling overwhelmed, transformed into a fox to escape. However, Bihyeongnyang discovered Gildal's transformation and struck him down, leading to his death.
During the Tang dynasty in China, a local magistrate fell under the spell of a fox spirit named Liu-Cheng(Ã¥ÂÂæÂÂ). Under the fox spiritâÂÂs enchantment, he became obsessively devoted to Buddhist practices, neglecting food and, eventually, even putting his own daughter at risk of being taken by the spirit. In response, a renowned Taoist exorcist named Na Gongwon was summoned to eliminate the fox spirit.
Na Gongwon managed to subdue the spirit, but Liu-Cheng had already ascended to the level of a Heavenly Fox(天çÂÂ), a celestial rank of fox spirits who serve the gods in heaven. Because of this divine status, he could not be killed.
As a last resort, Na Gongwon chose to exile Liu-Cheng to the ancient Korean kingdom of Silla. There, Liu Cheng was eventually worshipped as a deity.
The rank of Heavenly Fox (天çÂÂ), which Liu-Cheng had attained, is regarded in Chinese folklore as the highest level a fox spirit can reachâÂÂoften described as having golden fur and nine tails. Liu Cheng also claimed to be a miraculous Buddhist monk, a characteristic that closely resembles those of other fox spirits found in native Silla folklore.
Perceptions of the fox spirit in the Goryeo period, which inherited traditions from the ancient Three Kingdoms, can be observed in the poetry of scholars and poets. The prominent historical figure Shin Don was also, at times, compared to a fox spirit.
The poem by Im Chun(1149~1182), a Goryeo official, was written in mourning for his acquaintance Kim Yeolbo. The phrase "When the tiger leaves the mountain, the ominous fox begins to dance" is understood as an expression of sorrow over KimâÂÂs death, drawing from the Korean proverb "When the tiger is gone, the fox becomes king." This saying, which carries a meaning similar to the idiom hoga howi (a fox wielding power in the tigerâÂÂs name), compares Kim Yeolbo to a tiger, suggesting that in his absence, petty and insidious individualsâÂÂlikened to foxesâÂÂwould rise to prominence. In Im ChunâÂÂs poem, the fox is used as a metaphor for cunning and treacherous courtiers. Later Korean records also show a tendency to compare sycophantic officials at court to sly foxes or even nine-tailed foxes, reflecting ongoing cultural associations between foxes and deceitful behavior in the political sphere.
In historical sources from the Goryeo period, fox spirits with nine tails make a full appearance. The poem Nomoopyeon (èÂÂå·«ç¯Â, "On Old Shamans") by the poet Yi Kyubo(1168 ~ 1241) criticizes corrupt shamans who seduce the people with lewd songs and bizarre words, suggesting that they must be either thousand-year-old rats or nine-tailed foxes. This reflects the negative perception of illicit religions and fox spirits during the Goryeo era.
Yi Kyubo frequently composed poems that portrayed foxes in a negative light. Ironically, however, this critical stance toward foxes made him the first known figure to record the term kumiho(nine-tailed fox) in Korean literature.
Shin Don (è¾Âæ½,1322~1377), a prominent figure in Goryeo history, was recorded as a spirit of a cunning fox. As a historical figure, Shin Don was a monk and a close confidant of King Gongmin, who was effectively the last monarch to hold real power in the Goryeo royal court. In Goryeo society, monks were religious figures but generally came from lowly social backgrounds, and thus Shin DonâÂÂs rise to become the kingâÂÂs closest advisor was an extraordinary and unconventional case. He is regarded as a reformer who challenged the corrupt Goryeo political system; however, in the end, he himself was also corrupted by power and became known as a "demonic monk" (å¦Âå§), reflecting his complex and dual nature.
Some argue that since Shin DonâÂÂs deeds were recorded by revolutionary forces who eventually overthrew Goryeo to establish Joseon, many of the negative reputations attached to him are unfair. Ultimately, Shin DonâÂÂs rise from a lowly background to become the kingâÂÂs close aide, the fact that his history was written by the forces of the dynastic revolution, and most notably that he was defamed as a cunning fox spiritâÂÂa form of slander usually reserved for female figuresâÂÂironically made him the Korean historical figure most resembling Daji, the notorious woman in Chinese history, despite being a man.
As a fox spirit, Shin Don is referred to as Nohojung(èÂÂçÂÂç²¾), meaning "old fox spirit."In the records that regard Shin Don as an old fox spirit, it is said that he was considered an old fox spirit because he ate black chickens and white horses and was afraid of yellow dogs.
Gang Gam-chan (ê°Âê°Âì°¬, 1020âÂÂ1075) was a Goryeo military commander who famously defended the kingdom from the Khitan invasions. Over time, his historical role evolved into legend, with many folk tales portraying him as a heroic figure with magical powers. These stories, which emphasize his wisdom, strength, and supernatural abilities, were passed down through generations. A significant number of these oral traditions were collected after Korea's liberation, further cementing Gang Gam-chanâÂÂs status as a revered figure in Korean folklore.
A well-known folk tale about Gang Gam-chan tells that he was born to a human father and a fox mother. This story, linked to his birthplace in Yangyang, Gangwon Province, was recorded on October 2, 1981, by Kim Seon-pung, Kim Gi-seol, and Kim Gi-hyeon from 72-year-old Kim Hyo-shin in Osaek 1-ri, Seomyeon, Yangyang.
The folk tale that Gang Gam-chan is the son of a fox is a well-known oral tradition that has been collected in other regions of Korea around the same period. According to one storyteller of the folk tale, Gang Gam-chan, being born of a fox, was said to have had the ability to capture tigers.
The legendary figure of General Kang Gam-chan in Korean folklore is widely known as a monster-slayer who defeats various types of supernatural creatures. In these stories, Kang Gam-chan is portrayed as the son of a fox spirit, and he often confronts and defeats other fox spirits, such as Baeg-yeowoo or Kumiho. This dual perception of the fox spirit reflects the complex view of the fox sprit in Korean culture: while the fox spirit is seen as the divine origin of the heroâÂÂs extraordinary nature, it is simultaneously regarded as a malevolent entity that must be eradicated.
The religious status of the fox spirit significantly declined during the Joseon Dynasty, as Confucianism, which denied the existence of supernatural beings, became the dominant state ideology. However, fox spirits continued to appear frequently in popular literature of the period. With the introduction of Chinese shenmo (gods and demons) novels and the development of publishing during the Joseon era, Chinese traditions related to fox spirits were imported and assimilated, leading to more diverse depictions of fox spirits in Korean literature. Common features of fox spiritsâÂÂsuch as the possession of a magical marble or having multiple tailsâÂÂare also found in Joseon-era novels. And in many Korean fantasy novels written during the Joseon period, the spatial or temporal setting is often placed in earlier Chinese states. In these works as well, kumiho and other fox spirits frequently appear.
Moreover, depictions of the moral orientation of the kumiho (fox spirit) became more varied during the Joseon period. In Joseon literature, fox spirits are not portrayed solely as a uniformly malevolent "femme fatale" type; instead, narratives also feature trickster or morally neutral kumihos, a enemy commander kumiho appearing as young boy, fox spirits seeking to become human, and even fox spirits who begin as malevolent beings but later repent and convert to religion, becoming benevolent. This variety suggests that Joseon literati understood the fox spirit as a nonhuman being with a range of symbolic meanings, rather than as a single fixed archetype.
In the 19th century, the Joseon-era Silhak scholar Yi Gyugyeong wrote in Hoseon Byeonjeungseol (Discourse on the Disputation of Fox Spirits) that "in popular belief, the nine-tailed fox is regarded as a cunning and deceitful being, but according to historical records from China, it was originally considered an auspicious creature." This remark reflects the widespread popularity of fox spirit narratives among the Joseon commoners at the time.
In the Donguibogam (1610), a seminal Korean medical compendium, a remedy for illnesses attributed to nine-tailed fox spirits is recorded. The text introduces Byeogsadan (è¾Âéª丹) as a medicinal formula used to treat ailments caused by possession or affliction by such fox spirits, and provides a detailed description of its ingredients and method of preparation.
The Jeon Woo-chi Story is a tale based on a strange real-life figure from Joseon (formerly Korea) .The most well-known version of the Jeon Woo-chi Story, which originated in the 17th century, is the 47-volume Gyeongpan (Capital Edition) published in 1847. In this version, the Fox Spirit figures more prominently than in others.
In the opening of the novel Jeon Woo-chi-jeon, two fox spirits make their appearance. The first fox spirit, having transformed into a woman, approaches Woo-chi but is ultimately deceived; Woo-chi manages to steal her fox marble. The second fox spirit is a golden kumiho(or Baeg-yeowoo)âÂÂalso takes the form of a woman to approach Woo-chi. This kumiho engages in a tricksterâÂÂs battle of deception and cunning with Woo-chi, but ultimately loses one of her heavenly books (cheonseo) to him before going somewhere.
The introduction to the first fox spiritâÂÂs story adheres closely to a typical plot found in Korean oral folktales, in which a hero (or notable figure) steals a fox marble from a fox spirit. In this narrative, a female fox spirit attempts to kiss a male human to absorb his vital energy, but the man feigns reciprocating the kiss and seizes the fox marble from the foxâÂÂs mouth, swallowing it to acquire divine knowledge. The fox marble motif recorded in the literary tale Jeon Woo-chi-jeon is also embodied in Korean oral folktales.
In this second fox spiritâÂÂs story, both Woo-chi and the kumiho are tricksters, and the story unfolds as they deceive each other. Woo-chi attempts to expose the kumiho and steal her secrets, while the kumiho counters with illusions and tricks to deceive and mislead him. Both characters embody the trickster archetype, with their conflict blurring the lines between predator and prey. The outcome is ambiguous; Woo-chi gains only partial knowledge, and the kumiho survives, with both bearing the consequences of their deceptive struggle.
This kumiho also exhibits several traits associated with the Sky Fox. Like the Sky Fox, it possesses nine tails and golden fur, carries the Sky FoxâÂÂs signature itemâÂÂthe Cheonseo ("Heavenly book")âÂÂand attempts to ascend to the heavens. In traditional Chinese Sky Fox lore, humans who seek to seize the Cheonseo typically suffer fatal or otherwise disastrous consequences. In Korean folklore, Jeon Woo-chi, however, subverts this pattern: the protagonist succeeds in stealing the Cheonseo and manages to grasp at least part of the magical techniques recorded within it.
A tale involving Seo Gyeong-deok, who is known as the teacher of Jeon Woo-chi, also features a nine-tailed fox. The story of Seo Gyeong-deok defeating the nine-tailed fox is included in Dongpaenaksong (æ±ç¨Âæ´Â誦), a collection of Korean folktales from the Joseon dynasty, believed to have been compiled in the 1770s and transcribed by hand from the late 19th century onward.
This novel exemplifies a typical Joseon-era narrative that actively incorporates traditional Chinese folklore. This is clearly demonstrated by its reference to the legendary s of Yuso ancient China, indicating the adoption of widely recognized historical Chinese backgrounds. Furthermore, the nine-tailed fox that appears in the story is portrayed as a religious yet heretical figure who has mastered Buddhist and Taoist scripturesâÂÂa characterization that aligns with common traits found in traditional fox spirit legends.
Myeonghaengjeonguirok (æÂÂè¡Âæ£義éÂÂ) is a Joseon-period novel set against the backdrop of the Ming dynasty in China. The work features a kumiho (nine-tailed fox spirit) who aspires to become human. While the motif of a human-seeking fox spirit is one of the most commonly depicted themes in modern media, the portrayal in this novel is distinct and notably more complex.
In this novel, the kumiho is portrayed in an unusual way: it is male and primarily harms humans by draining the life-essence of women. At the same time, however, the fox spirit ardently desires to become human, a goal rooted in the Daoist worldview that one must first attain human status before advancing toward immortality. The method by which a fox may be reborn as a human is to receive a piece of human poetry, and the narrative further extends this motif to other creatures: a fish, upon receiving human verse, is depicted as transforming into a dragon. This framework reflects a Daoist cosmology in which the higher stage of a fox is a human (or Daoist adept), the higher stage of a fish is a dragon, and in which animal spirits must obtain human recognition in order to ascend to a superior spiritual state.
The story of Daji (妲己), the most famous nine-tailed fox in East Asian classical literature, featured in the Chinese novel Investiture of the Gods, was introduced to Joseon Korea in the 17th century. The Korean reading of her name, Dal-gi (ë¬기), became widely used, and Koreans referred to her by this pronunciation. The tale of the gumiho (nine-tailed fox) Dal-gi spread broadly, and Koreans even created an adapted version focusing on her deeds, titled So-Dal-gi-jeon (The Tale of So Dal-gi).
The notion of Dal-gi as a malevolent nine-tailed fox became widespread during the Joseon period. Her story exerted a considerable influence on Joseon literature, and Dal-gi herself appeared directly in several classical Korean novels. In Gurae Gong Jeong Chung Jik Jeol Gi (å¯ÂèÂÂå ¬è²Âå¿ ç´ç¯Âè¨Â), a Korean classical novel set in the Song dynasty, a cruel character named Yu Ho-yeong is described as a reincarnation of Dal-gi. In another Joseon novel, Ssangseong Seongbong Hyo-rok (éÂÂæÂÂå¥ÂÃ¥ÂÂéÂÂ), the character Myo-wol trains in a cave, where she remarks that "this is the place(the cave) where a nine-tailed fox once cultivated the Way, donned a human skull, and became Dal-gi." This passage reflects the widespread belief that Dal-gi deliberately used her beauty to bring about the downfall of the Shang dynasty.
A version of the Dal-gi legend also appears in the late JoseonâÂÂperiod animal allegory Okpodong-Giwanrok (çÂÂ浦æ´Âå¥Âç©éÂÂ), which is set in Okpodong, Korea.
In this story, a wise toad recounts the deeds of various animalsâ ancestors while boasting of his own age and rank among the beasts. When a fox mocks him, the toad retaliates by revealing the wicked history of the foxâÂÂs supposed ancestress, Dal-gi, who is portrayed as a nine-tailed fox spirit.
According to the toadâÂÂs account, Dal-gi was executed for bringing ruin upon the Shang dynasty but continued to haunt the world as an evil fox spirit, spreading chaos through her descendants, including a depraved offspring named Ho-ri (çÂÂ羸). While exposing the crimes of Dal-gi and her corrupt progeny, the toad also acknowledges the existence of a virtuous line of foxes who opposed Dal-gi. The progenitor of this righteous fox clan was said to have revealed Dal-giâÂÂs true nature and aided in her capture, and their ancestral homeland was called Yeonghojin (令çÂÂæ´¥, "Ford of the Virtuous Fox").
In the end, the foxâÂÂcornered by the toadâÂÂs account and seeking a way to save faceâÂÂclaims that his own lineage originates from Yeonghojin, thus attempting to associate himself with the virtuous fox clan that once opposed Dal-gi.
In Korea, several place names are thought to have derived from the name Dal-gi. Near Juwangsan (literally "King Juwang Mountain"), several toponyms include the name Dal-gi, among which Dal-gi Falls and the Dal-gi Mineral Spring are the most notable.
According to Korean legends, "King Zhou" (Juwang, 주ìÂÂ) of Juwangsan was a king who came from the Tang dynasty. He is therefore not the same figure as King Zhou of the Shang dynasty, Dal-giâÂÂs husband in Chinese mythology.The toponym "Dal-gi" is also believed to have originated during the Joseon dynasty, when the Dal-gi Mineral Spring was first discovered. According to local tradition, the sound of the bubbling water was said to resemble the crowing of a rooster â dak in Korean â which sounded similar to Dal-gi. For this reason, the place was named "Dal-gi." Historical records indicate that the name is unrelated to the Korean pronunciation of Daji (妲己) from Chinese mythology.
However, the fact that several place names containing "Dal-gi" (interpreted as JuwangâÂÂs wife) are located within Juwangsan ("King ZhouâÂÂs Mountain," referring to Dal-giâÂÂs husband) is considered by many to be more than a coincidence. As a result, many Koreans associate the local toponyms with the characters from Investiture of the Gods.
Because the Chinese characters for "barbarian" hu (è¡) and "fox" hu (çÂÂ) are homophones, several scholars have argued that in Chinese cultural history the image of the ethnic Other was at times projected onto the fox. A similar phonetic overlap exists in Korean, where the Sino-Korean reading ho refers both to foreign tribes (è¡) and to the fox (çÂÂ). As a result, this conceptual association also appears to have shaped certain Joseon-period narratives.
This idea is reflected in late JoseonâÂÂperiod literary works set during the Yuan and Ming dynasties, in which the king of foreign tribesâÂÂreferred to as Ho-wang (Korean: øìÂÂ; Hanja: è¡çÂÂ)âÂÂis frequently linked to fox spirits. In these tales, Ho-wang is not merely symbolically associated with foxes: he commands formidable fox-spirit generals who fight on his behalf. Within the broader corpus of Joseon war tales (gundam soseol), which commonly adopt the Central Plains under the Yuan and Ming as their temporal and spatial backdrop, the protagonistsâ armies repeatedly confront Ho-wang and his retinue of supernatural commanders. Among these supernatural retainers, fox-spirit generals feature prominently, reinforcing the literary convention that equates foreign adversaries with powerful fox entities.
In the war tale Cheonjeong-gayeon (Korean: ì²Âì Âê°Âì°; Hanja: 天å®Â佳緣), Se-yung-wang (西æÂÂçÂÂ) appears as one of the enemy commanders who fight against the protagonists Yu Sin (ì ì ) and Cheongpung (ì²ÂÃÂÂ), displaying formidable power on the battlefield.
Within this narrative, Ho-wang rules over a group of ten-thousand-year-old animal spiritsâÂÂa tiger, a snake and a fishâÂÂwho serve as his generals, and Se-yung-wang is likewise described as a ten-thousand-year-old fox spirit.
In the Sagakjeon (Korean: ì¬ê°Âì Â), an unusually portrayed kumiho appears in the guise of a young boy. In this narrative, the nine-tailed fox disguises itself as a youthful commander serving under Ho-wang (è¡çÂÂ), bearing the name Ho Cheonnyeon (Korean: øì²Âë Â). This boy-general fox spirit leads troops in battle but is ultimately defeated by Sagak, who wields the Daoist swords nobaekgeom and byeongnyeokdo, said in later retellings to be related to the legendary Songbaekdo, a blade forged from a thousand-year-old white pine.
Okrumong, composed in the mid-nineteenth century amid the collapse of established social orders and the formation of new value systems, has been read as articulating human ideals and aspirations through a pragmatic, utilitarian outlook. Within this framework, the depiction of the fox spirit Sobosal is notably multidimensional: she first appears as a conventional "seductive fox demon," assuming the form of a beautiful woman to entice a ruler and incite his wrongdoing, but after being captured and bound by the female protagonist, she repents and later suppresses other malevolent spirits. Sobosal ultimately succeeds in becoming human and is portrayed as attaining a higher spiritual state, a rare narrative outcome for a fox spirit. The episode also implies a religious hierarchy in which humanity is positioned above fox spirits in spiritual attainment.
The idea that fox spirits gain higher levels of cultivation as they grow more tails was not actively adopted in Korea. Nevertheless, several classical Korean novels implicitly suggest an internal hierarchy among fox spirits that corresponds to the number of tails they possess.
In the late Joseon dynasty novel Taewonji(ÃÂÂìÂÂì§Â), foxes transform themselves into beautiful women and establish a realm called the Country of Women. When the protagonists overthrow the inhabitants of this land, the women are revealed to be fox spirits, and the description of their tails suggests a graded hierarchy among them: the queen is said to have seven tails, the nine princesses are described as having five or three tails, and the ladies-in-waiting are characterized simply as foxes of great age.
In Yui-Yangmunrok(Ã¥ÂÂæÂÂå ©éÂÂéÂÂ), the portrayal of Ho-mi-a a fox spirit bearing seven tails-serving under a nine-tailed master suggests a hierarchical system among fox spirits based on the number of their tails.
The Annals of the Joseon Dynasty contain several instances suggesting that the term kumiho (ä¹Âå°¾çÂÂ, nine-tailed fox) was used as a derogatory expression to refer to officials of rival political factions.
During the reign of King Jeongjo, Park Sang (pen name: Neoljae), a leading figure of the Sarim faction, likened the opposing Hungu faction to ominous creatures representing the four directions. In a scathing verse, he cursed them, saying:
In the early modern Korean period (early 20th century), the term and concept of kumiho were already in use. Evidence appears in the late-Joseon newspaper Daehan Maeil Sinbo, which includes a tabloid-style report describing the kumihoâÂÂs method of luring victims by transforming into a woman, as well as an opinion piece that employs the kumiho as a metaphor for a corrupt ruling class.
After the Japanese annexation, Daehan Maeil Sinbo was renamed Maeil Sinbo, which continued to incorporate kumiho folklore into reports of unusual events. These include articles describing victims as having "fallen prey to a kumiho," as well as a piece criticizing a shaman who fabricated stories while invoking the kumiho. These examples indicate that early modern Korean newspapers frequently employed the kumiho as a narrative device, using it both in sensational ghost-story reporting and in social commentary.
In 1930, Korean historian Son Jin-tae published Korean Folktales (æÂÂé®®ã®æ°Â話) in Japanese, which includes the story "The Mountain Goddess and the Dragon King (女山ç¥Âã¨é¾ÂçÂÂ)." This work reflects his effort to collect and document traditional Korean oral folktales that were circulating among the populace at the time. In the story, the Mountain Goddess is portrayed as a thousand-year-old fox spirit.
This story is a folktale from the Joseon(Japanese colonial) period in Korea and shares notable similarities with fox spirit legends recorded in the Samguk Yusa. The fox spirit holds the status of the Mountain Goddess, reminiscent of Heuk-yeoyoo (the black fox) who aided the monk Won-Gwang. This monstrous fox is depicted as a formidable being capable of simultaneously defeating three dragons and resisting the power of the Dragon King and his kingdom. This portrayal evokes the image of the monstrous fox from the Geotaji and Jakjegeon legends.
This suggests that fox spirits were traditionally viewed not only as supernatural mountain gods but also as powerful adversaries of dragons within the local mythological framework.
The comic Brown Fox (Korean: ãÂÂê°ÂìÂÂì“°ãÂÂ), published on 22 May 1972, uses foxes as an allegory for the political situation on the Korean Peninsula. Its protagonist, the brown fox, is the central character but is portrayed as petty, sly, and highly skilled at flattering those in power, making him a picaresque-type figure. All of the other foxes in the story, apart from the brown fox, are white.
The work is a fable that metaphorically represents the turbulent circumstances of the modern Korean Peninsula through incidents taking place in a forest inhabited by foxes. The white foxes stand for the residents of the peninsula, the wolves symbolize foreign powers and dictators, the humans represent a powerful third party that neutralizes those foreign and dictatorial forces, and the brown fox corresponds to a petty collaborator who serves the foreign or dictatorial powers but is ruined once those powers are overthrown by the stronger third party.
Although the story depicts wild foxes rather than magical fox spirits, the fox inhabitants of the forest are white-furred like traditional fox spirits. The brown fox, because of his treacherous behavior, is derisively called bul-yeowoo (Korean: ë¶Âì“°), a term that also appears as one of the appellations for fox spirits in Korean folklore.
The presence of such fox-spirit imagery, even in a modern fable about wild foxes, suggests how strongly Koreans have tended to view the fox as an inherently uncanny and suspicious animal.
In South Korea, the anthology horror television series Hometown of Legends (Jeonseol-ui Gohyang) is widely regarded as having popularized the modern image of the kumiho. The showâÂÂs kumiho episodes featured actresses in striking fox-spirit makeup that emphasized visual horror and shock, firmly establishing the kumiho as a central figure in televised horror for the general public.
The role of the kumiho was first played by Han Hye-suk in 1979, and was later taken on by many of the eraâÂÂs leading actresses, including Jang Mi-hee, Jung Yoon-hee, Yoo Ji-in, Kim Mi-sook, Sunwoo Eun-sook, Han Hye-gyeong, and Kim Ja-ok, all of whom either rose to stardom or further solidified their popularity through these appearances. From the 1990s onward, prominent or up-and-coming stars such as Park Sang-ah, Lim Kyung-ok, Song Yoon-ah (in the 1997 production Kumiho), Noh Hyun-hee, and Kim Ji-young were also cast in kumiho roles.
In Hometown of Legends, the kumiho is portrayed as harboring a strong desire to become human, a characterization that has come to be regarded as an influential prototype for later depictions of the kumiho in contemporary Korean popular culture.
From the late 2000s, televised depictions began to move away from traditional horror-focused portrayals, increasingly featuring kumiho characters as familiar or sympathetic female protagonists, and eventually introducing male kumiho characters as well.
Kumiho characters in Korean animation have been directly influenced by their portrayals in Korean television dramas, resulting in early animated depictions that emphasize sympathetic or emotionally evocative qualities. For example, the fox spirit in Once Upon a Time with Cabbage Wizard & Radish Wizard, one of the earliest known kumiho-themed animated works, is portrayed as a thousand-year-old fox with a sincere devotion to her family. Likewise, the fox protagonists of Yoranga-Yoranga and Yobi, the Five-Tailed Fox are depicted as friendly, girl-like figures.
Although some animated works do portray the kumiho as a malevolent or frightening creatureâÂÂreflecting the influence of earlier horror-oriented mediaâÂÂsuch depictions have become increasingly uncommon in recent years.
Kingdom of the Winds, which began closed beta testing in 1995, has been recognized by Guinness World Records as the longest-running graphical MMORPG and is often cited as one of the earliest Korean-style fantasy MMORPGs. In the game, the kumiho appears as the final boss of one of its earliest dungeons, the Fox Den, and represents one of the earliest known implementations of a nine-tailed fox in an online game.
Nexon, the developer of Kingdom of the Winds, introduced a playable kumiho avatar to the game in 2012 and has actively incorporated kumiho-themed content into several of its other titles.
Because South Korea has a highly developed online gaming industry and the kumiho has become a representative motif in Korean fantasy, many other online game companies also make frequent use of kumiho-related characters and settings, with some long-running online games adding kumiho content only at a later stage in their service.
League of Legends, an online game developed by the American company Riot Games and originally released in 2009, introduced the champion Ahri, a kumiho-inspired character, in 2011 to coincide with the launch of the gameâÂÂs Korean servers. AhriâÂÂs design drew on Korean nine-tailed fox lore, and her Korean-style name was selected through a poll of Korean players on the official League of Legends website.
During the 1990s and 2000s, kumiho characters appeared frequently in print manhwa. In the Kingdom of the Winds manhwa, which later served as the basis for the identically titled online game, the kumiho appears as a minor antagonist. Several romance-oriented manhwa of the period also featured kumiho characters. In Reborn Gumiho, the kumiho protagonist is depicted not as a purely benevolent or malevolent figure but as a morally complex character combining both good and evil traits, while Raon The Gumiho includes a hermaphroditic kumiho character.
Following the industry-wide transition from print manhwa to webtoon formats in the 2010s, kumiho characters have continued to appear in a wide variety of works.