The is a type of formal court robe traditionally worn by the Emperor of Japan. It corresponds to the Chinese gÃÂnfú (), a ceremonial robe for emperors featuring dragon embroidery, used during major state rituals in ancient China. In Japan, the Kon'e was worn together with the during important court ceremonies such as the Sokui no rei (å³ä½Âã®礼; Enthronement Ceremony) and the .
In China, the robe was also known by the classical expression xuányë xà «ncháng (, ), referring to its black upper garment and light red skirt. In contrast, the Japanese Kon'e features red garments for both the upper and lower sections. A distinctive characteristic of the Japanese style is the way the mo (裳)âÂÂa mid-length ceremonial wrap skirtâÂÂis worn over the hakama (袴; traditional trousers), creating a uniquely Japanese configuration of lower-body garments.
The Kon'e remained in use until the enthronement of Emperor KÃ Âmei in 1847. Beginning with Emperor Meiji, the official attire for enthronement ceremonies became the .
The term is an abbreviation of , which means a "dragon-embroidered ceremonial robe". Originating in China, the Kon'e was a ceremonial robe adorned with dragon motifs. The Book of Songs (Shijing) mentions such a robe in the "Bin feng" section, describing King Cheng of Zhou wearing it to greet the Duke of Zhou.
The Rites of Zhou (Zhouli), in the "Ministry of Spring" section, states: "When offering rites to former kings, [the emperor] wears the Kon'e and ." A commentary adds that the character "Kon" specifically refers to garments embroidered with coiled dragons.
In Japan, the Kon'e became the emperorâÂÂs most formal court attire and was worn at ceremonies such as the enthronement ceremony and the . The outfit consisted of a wide-sleeved outer robe (大è¢Â, à Âsode), an inner robe (å°Âè¢Â, kosode), and a pleated ceremonial skirt called . Both the à Âsode and mo were embroidered with the twelve imperial insignia, known in Japanese as , a set of symbolic emblems representing imperial authority, including dragons. Until the enthronement of Emperor Kà Âmei, the Kon'e and Benkan were worn together in such rituals, and the complete ensemble was known as , , or .
The Chinese equivalent traditionally followed the xuányë xà «ncháng (, ) standardâÂÂfeaturing a black upper garment and a red lower one. In contrast, the Japanese Kon'e was entirely red. One theory attributes this color scheme to early Sui dynasty practices described in the Book of Sui. However, the Japanese adoption of the Kon'e occurred during the Tang dynasty, whose legal clothing code retained the black-and-red configuration. Although Emperor Wen of Sui (Yang Jian) altered court dress for audiences to an all-red format, ceremonial robes such as the Kon'e remained unchanged.
Another theory links the red color to solar symbolism. The Japanese Benkan features a sun-shaped ornament not found in Chinese counterparts, possibly signifying the emperorâÂÂs status as âÂÂSon of the Sun.â From this perspective, the all-red color may have been chosen to represent the sun, aligning with JapanâÂÂs image as the âÂÂLand of the Rising Sun.âÂÂ
According to the Shoku Nihongi, "On the first day of the first month in the fourth year of Tenpyà Â, the emperor received the New YearâÂÂs audience at the Daigokuden (大極殿, main audience hall of the imperial palace), wearing the Konben (Kon'e and Benkan) for the first time." Based on this record, it is considered that the emperor first wore the Kon'e and the Benkan in 732 (Tenpyà  4). However, it is thought that this did not yet include the full Kon'e adorned with the twelve imperial insignia (Ã¥ÂÂäºÂç« , jà «nishà Â).
The "Edicts on Attire" (è¡£æÂÂ令) within the Yà Ârà  Code contain regulations for the attire of the Crown Prince and other officials, but none concerning the emperorâÂÂs dress. For instance, the Crown Prince's formal dress is specified as "à Âni no koromo" (é»Â丹衣), a reddish-yellow robe, but the formal color of the emperorâÂÂs attire remains unknown.
At the Shà Âsà Âin repository, there remains a case labeled "Surviving Portions of Ornaments for Imperial Ceremonial Attire and Crowns" (礼æÂÂ御å æ®Â欠), which is believed to contain fragments of the imperial ceremonial crowns worn by Emperor Shà Âmu (as Retired Emperor) and Empress Kà Âmyà  (as Empress Dowager). Inside the case is a wooden tag indicating that these items were their formal ceremonial robes. The reverse of the tag is inscribed with the date "April 9, 752" (Tenpyà  Shà Âhà  4), which corresponds to the date of the Eye-Opening Ceremony of the Great Buddha at Tà Âdaiji. It is therefore believed that these garments were worn on that occasion.
Although the garments themselves no longer survive, records of ceremonial airing (bakuryà Â, insect-proof airing) are preserved in the Shà Âsà Âin documents. The Bakuryà Âshi-ge (Report of the Airing Officials) from 793 (Enryaku 12) and the Kanmotsushi-ge (Inventory Report by the Shà Âsà Âin Treasure Inspectors) from 811 (Kà Ânin 2) describe Emperor Shà ÂmuâÂÂs formal robe as a haku no awasehà  (å¸Â袷è¢Â), that is, a lined white silk robe.
White has long symbolized purity and freedom from defilement, and even today, the ceremonial robes worn by the Emperor of Japan during the Daijà Âsai and Niinamesai are pure white. It is therefore inferred that the ceremonial attire of emperors during the Nara period consisted of undecorated white garments, which were inherited in later forms such as the hakuginu (å¸Âè¡£, white silk robe) and gosai-fuku (御ç¥ÂæÂÂ, imperial ritual attire).
According to the Shà Âsà Âin documents, the ceremonial ensemble of Emperor Shà Âmu consisted of the following items:
The hà  (è¢Â) refers to the outer robe, while the à Âshi (è¥ÂÃ¥ÂÂ) are inner garments with linings. Jomen (絮綿) indicates cotton padding, and awase (袷) refers to unpadded lined garments. The kansan (æ±Âè¡«) is an unlined undergarment. The hirami (褶) is a short, pleated wrap skirt, equivalent to the later mo (裳). The fukushi (å¹ÂÃ¥ÂÂ) are cloths used for wrapping.
In the Tang dynasty, the emperor's gÃÂnfú (è¢ÂæÂÂ) was composed of two distinct garments, following the traditional yi-shang (衣裳) systemâÂÂyi (è¡£), the upper garment, and shang (裳), a skirt-like lower garment. In contrast, the Japanese imperial ceremonial attire consisted of three components: the upper robe, a pair of trousers (hakama), and a short pleated overskirt (hirami), reflecting a different development in the structure of court dress.
While Chinese court attire did not include skirt-like garments worn over trousers, Japanese formal dressâÂÂboth for the emperor and civil officialsâÂÂincluded hirami worn over hakama. The hirami, a short pleated overskirt, later came to be referred to as mo (裳) in the Heian period.
The use of hirami in Japanese court dress represents a continuous tradition dating back to the Asuka period, and was incorporated into the design of the Kon'e. Although inspired by Tang models, the Japanese formal costume developed its own distinctive structure for the lower body.
At the Shà Âsà Âin, a pair of shoes known as Nà Â-no-gorairi (衲御礼履), believed to have been worn by Emperor Shà Âmu at the Eye-Opening Ceremony of the Great Buddha, are preserved today.https://shosoin.kunaicho.go.jp/en-US/treasures/?id=0000014623&index=0
The Kon'e was formally designated as the emperorâÂÂs ritual attire by an imperial edict issued in 820 (Kà Ânin 11) by Emperor Saga. According to the Nihon Kiryaku, the edict stipulated that the emperor should wear the Hakuginu (å¸Âè¡£) for Shinto rituals, the Konben Jà «nishà  (è¢ÂÃ¥ÂÂÃ¥ÂÂäºÂç« ; Kon'e and Benkan adorned with the Twelve Ornaments) for the imperial New YearâÂÂs audience (Chà Âga), and the Kà Ârozen no gohà  (é»Â櫨æÂÂè¡£) for various official events.
The term Konben Jà «nishà  refers to the combination of the Benkan (Ã¥ÂÂå ; imperial crown), which bears twelve hanging ornaments (ryà « æÂÂ) of beaded strings, and the Kon'e, which is embroidered with twelve symbolic motifs known as the Jà «nishà  (Ã¥ÂÂäºÂç« , Twelve Ornaments).
An entry dated July 4, 1036 (Chà Âgen 9) in the Doyà «ki (Ã¥ÂÂå³è¨Â), the diary of Minamoto no Morofusa, records the ritual known as Reifuku Goran (礼æÂÂ御覧), in which Emperor Go-Suzaku inspected the Konben Jà «nishà  that he would wear for his upcoming enthronement ceremony. This ritual involved removing the garments from storage in the Kuraryà  (å èµ寮, Bureau of Palace Storehouses) for direct examination by the emperor.
According to the diary, the upper garment of the emperorâÂÂs attire was made of scarlet twill and described as âÂÂà Âsode hi-iro ayaâ (大è¢Âç·Âè²綾), meaning âÂÂwide-sleeved scarlet twill.â It was embroidered with eight symbolic motifsâÂÂsun, moon, mountain, flame, bird, dragon, tiger, and monkeyâÂÂreferred to collectively as the Jà «nishà Â. The kosode (å°Âè¢Â, inner robe) and the mo (裳, ceremonial wrap skirt) were also scarlet and embroidered with patterns such as folding branches, axe shapes, and tomoe (å·´) characters. The kosode was worn beneath the outer garment and was unembroidered. It corresponds to the à Âshi (è¥ÂÃ¥ÂÂ) of the Nara period.
Several distinctions can be observed between the Japanese Kon'e and the Chinese gÃÂnfú. While inspired by the Chinese prototype, Japan adopted red instead of white and added the Jà «nishà  embroidery. Aside from these features, the design largely continued the imperial attire of the Nara period. Scholars suggest that JapanâÂÂs interpretation of Tang customs was superficial, leading to a stylized form of âÂÂTang-styleâ attire that reflected domestic adaptations more than faithful replication.
Initially, the Kon'e was worn exclusively for the New YearâÂÂs imperial audience, but it was later adopted for use in enthronement ceremonies as well. After the abolition of Chà Âga in 993 (Shà Âryaku 4), the Kon'e remained reserved for enthronement ceremonies until the late Edo period.
An entry dated March 3, 1288 (Kà Âan 11) in the Gofukakusa-in Gyoki (å¾Âæ·±èÂÂé¢御è¨Â, "Diary of Retired Emperor Go-Fukakusa") records that Retired Emperor Go-Fukakusa inspected the ceremonial robes in preparation for the enthronement of his son, Emperor Fushimi.
This passage indicates that the motifs embroidered on the à Âsode matched those found on similar garments in the early modern period. While some of the patterns on the mo are difficult to interpret (such as the upper band possibly being fu 黼), the presence of futsu (é»») in the lower band makes it likely that two of the Twelve Ornaments were represented. Since only ten motifs are explicitly mentioned, scholars infer that all twelve were likely present but only partially described.
When Emperor Kà Âgon, the first emperor of the Northern Court, viewed the ceremonial attire prior to his enthronement, it was discovered that the garments had become damp due to damage to the storehouse of the Imperial Treasury (Kuraryà Â). Consequently, the robes were temporarily kept at the residence of his father, Retired Emperor Go-Fushimi. At that time, Go-Fushimi ordered the imperial court painter Takashina Takatsugu to create detailed color illustrations of the robes, which are described in the Jà Âwa 5 Enthronement Record (ãÂÂè²ÂÃ¥ÂÂäºÂ年御å³ä½Âè¨ÂãÂÂ). It is said that the paintings faithfully reproduced even the colors of the actual garments.
This period encompasses both the Nanboku-chà  period (1336âÂÂ1392), when rival imperial courts coexisted, and the Muromachi period (1336âÂÂ1573), under the Ashikaga shogunate.
In 1333 (Shà Âkyà  2), during the conflicts that accompanied the fall of the Kamakura shogunate, all ceremonial robes for emperors, empresses regnant, young emperors, empresses consort, and crown princes were lost. On 28 December 1337 (Kenmu 4), at the enthronement ceremony of Emperor Kà Âmyà Â, the second emperor of the Northern Court, all the garments used in the enthronement were newly made, according to the diary of Emperor Kà Âmyà  (Kà Âmyà Â-in Gyoki). The emperorâÂÂs ceremonial robes were reconstructed almost in their original form, based on a drawing commissioned by Emperor Go-Fushimi. For the benkan, a crown designated for imperial use was taken out from the Shà Âsà Âin for reference and newly made.
At the enthronement of Emperor Sukà Â, the third emperor of the Northern Court, the robes created for Emperor Kà Âmyà  were reused. Since Emperor Go-Komatsu, the 100th emperor, ascended the throne as a child, the Takakura family produced a smaller set of robes modeled on those of Emperor Kà Âmyà Â. This is noted in Shà Âzoku Zatsujishà  by Takakura Nagayuki.
At the enthronement of Emperor Shà Âkà Â, the 101st emperor, a new set of robes was produced due to the "destruction of the imperial treasury by fire." The newly made items included a benkan, a red à Âsode (outer robe), a red kosode (inner robe), a red mo (skirt), a pair of jade pendants (gyokuhai), one ju (sash), an ivory scepter (gyokushaku), brocade socks(nishiki no on-shità Âzu), and court shoes, as recorded in the Shà Âkà Â-in Go-Sokui-ki.
At the time of Emperor Shà Âkà ÂâÂÂs viewing of the ceremonial robes, there were two lacquered chests (karabitsu) for garments and two crown boxes (kanmuri-oke) for the ceremonial headpieces, suggesting that two complete sets of enthronement attire were present. It is therefore believed that the set made for Emperor Kà Âmyà  was the one destroyed in the fire, while the child-sized robes made for Emperor Go-Komatsu were spared.
During the à Ânin War, the emperorâÂÂs ceremonial robes were safely relocated to Mount Hiei. On 27 March 1474 (Bunmei 6), the court noble Kanroji Chikanaga was dispatched to retrieve the "imperial ceremonial robes" from Mount Hiei, as recorded in the Chikanaga Kyà Âki.
However, since nearly all other items related to the enthronement ceremony, apart from the emperorâÂÂs ceremonial robes, were lost in the warfare, the enthronement of Emperor Go-Kashiwabara, the 104th emperor, was delayed for more than twenty years. During this interval, the emperorâÂÂs robes and benkan were repaired, and new ceremonial robes for the court nobles were prepared. The enthronement ceremony was finally held on 22 March 1521 (Daiei 1). The same robes were reused for the enthronement ceremonies of Emperor Go-Nara (105th) and Emperor à Âgimachi (106th). At the time of Emperor à ÂgimachiâÂÂs enthronement, both the benkan and the jade pendants (gyokuhai) required repairs, which were carried out by Buddhist sculptors, according to the Tokitsugu-kyà Âki.
The enthronement ceremony of Emperor Go-Yà Âzei, the 107th emperor, held in 1586 (Tenshà  14), was conducted with the support of the de facto ruler Toyotomi Hideyoshi, and therefore benefited from greater financial resources compared to the preceding Sengoku period. However, while the emperorâÂÂs sokutai (formal court dress) for summer and winter, as well as his ohiki-nà Âshi (informal robe), were newly made, the ceremonial robes (konâÂÂe) were not. It is presumed that the ceremonial robes produced during the reign of Emperor Shà Âkà  were reused.
It is generally believed that the study and practice of yà «soku kojitsu (æÂÂè·æ å®Â, court and ceremonial precedents) declined during the Sengoku period but were revived in the Edo period. The so-called âÂÂKanâÂÂei Yà «sokuâÂÂ(å¯Âæ°¸æÂÂè·) of this era has sometimes been criticized as overly ornate or excessively focused on splendor.
However, with regard to the konâÂÂe, the design is believed to have been faithfully preserved from before the Sengoku period into the Edo period. This continuity is attributed to the existence of an illustrated reference of the robes commissioned by Emperor Go-Fushimi, as well as the evacuation of court robes to Mount Hiei during the à Ânin War.
At the enthronement ceremony of Emperor Go-Mizunoo, the 108th emperor, held in 1611 (Keichà  16), all types of robes required by the emperor were newly produced, exceeding even the new garments prepared under Toyotomi HideyoshiâÂÂs donations. Components of the imperial ceremonial robes newly produced at that time included the à Âsode (outer robe), kosode (inner robe), mo (skirt), and shità Âzu (ceremonial socks), while the benkan and seki (court shoes) are believed to have been reused.
At the enthronement of Empress Meishà Â, the 109th monarch, held in 1630 (KanâÂÂei 7), a new ceremonial robe in the style of the jà «nihitoe was prepared, as she was a reigning empress. The fabric was made of plain white karaaya silk, and, following precedent, the twelve imperial insignia (jà «nishà Â) were not applied. (Gyokuro-sà Â)
At the enthronement of Emperor Go-Kà Âmyà Â, the 110th emperor, in 1643 (KanâÂÂei 20), a new konâÂÂe was produced due to his young age at the time of enthronement. A surviving paper mock-up known as Raifuku-kata (pattern for the ceremonial robe) from this occasion is extant today. The decorative design painted on the paper mock-up is nearly identical to extant examples of actual konâÂÂe.
Many of the existing ceremonial robes were lost in the 1653 (Jà Âà  2) fire at the imperial palace. However, during the viewing of the robes prior to the enthronement of Emperor Go-Sai in 1656 (Meireki 2), a set of âÂÂantique garmentsâ was still present alongside newly prepared robes, leading to the theory that the konâÂÂe used by Emperor Go-Kà Âmyà  had survived.
At the Higashiyama Archive (æ±山御æÂÂ庫, Higashiyama Gobunko) within the Kyoto Imperial Palace, the ceremonial robes worn by successive emperors since Emperor Go-Sai have been preserved. A survey of the collection conducted in 1912 (Taishà  1) was compiled as the Gofuku On-mokuoku (Catalogue of Imperial Robes), now held by the Archives and Mausolea Department of the Imperial Household Agency. However, the survey has been criticized for its inaccuracies, and it has been suggested that some garments predating Emperor Go-Sai, possibly even those of Emperor Go-Kà Âmyà Â, may have been misattributed.
In the 17th-century folding screen Illustration of the Enthronement of Emperor Reigen and Abdication of Emperor Go-Sai, Emperor Reigen (the 112th emperor) is shown seated on the Takamikura (Imperial Throne), wearing a red konâÂÂe and a benkan. It is unusual for the emperorâÂÂs face (é¾Âé¡Â, ryà «gan) to be directly depicted in enthronement screen paintings.
The konâÂÂe attributed to Emperor Reigen is believed to survive, albeit with the embroidery removed (Tokinarukyà Â-ki). However, the Gofuku On-mokuroku attributes this robe to Emperor Go-Sai, further underscoring the deficiencies in the catalog.
Additionally, red konâÂÂe (à Âsode, kosode, and mo) worn by Emperor Higashiyama (the 113th emperor) and Emperor Kà Âmei (the 121st emperor) are preserved at the Higashiyama Archive of the Kyoto Imperial Palace. On Emperor HigashiyamaâÂÂs konâÂÂe, the twelve imperial insignia were embroidered directly onto the fabric, whereas in Emperor Kà ÂmeiâÂÂs case, the insignia were embroidered on separate cloth pieces, which were then appliquéd onto the robe.
The embroidery was executed using colored and gold threads. Even when the motifs were the same, variations in color combinations and intricate details were applied to showcase refined craftsmanship.
There are no extant records in the Shà Âsà Âin documents regarding the ceremonial robes of empress regnants (female sovereigns of Japan). However, according to the Doyà «ki, a ceremonial robe belonging to an empress regnant and stored in the Kuraryà  (Bureau of Palace Storehouses) is described as follows:
âÂÂ大è¢ÂãÂÂå°Âè¢ÂãÂÂè£ÂçÂÂçÂÂç½綾ç¡ç¹ÂæÂÂãÂÂå°Âè¢Âä¸Â縫ä»Âç½羠ãÂÂå¦Âç·裳è ä¹ÂâÂÂ
(âÂÂThe outer robe (à Âsode), inner robe (kosode), and skirt (kun) were all made of plain white figured silk without embroidery; a sheer white silk (ra) was sewn beneath the kosode in the manner of a manâÂÂs mo (mo being a short, wraparound skirt panel).âÂÂ)
This indicates that the upper garments, including the à Âsode and kosode, as well as the lower garment (kun), were all white, made of figured silk without embroidery, and did not feature the twelve symbolic motifs (jà «nishà Â). The phrase âÂÂå¦Âç·裳è ä¹Ââ implies that the sheer white silk sewn beneath the kosode was constructed in a manner similar to the male emperorâÂÂs mo (a short, wraparound skirt panel). In contrast to the later jà «nihitoe style (five-layered robes with an outer robe and back train), this robe likely retained the pleated hirami structure characteristic of ceremonial garments from the Nara period.
The empress regnant closest in time to the compilation of the Doyà «ki was Empress Kà Âken (who later reascended as Empress Shà Âtoku). Thus, it is considered likely that the described robe belonged to her. If so, this suggests that the ceremonial robes of empress regnants in the Nara period were also white in color.
Regarding the layering order of the skirt and the pleated hirami, since the kosode was worn over the kun (skirt), it is presumed that the pleated hirami was layered on top of the skirt in the case of an empress regnant.
Furthermore, the ceremonial robes worn by Empress Go-Sakuramachi, the 117th monarch and the only empress regnant of the Edo period, are preserved as imperial property in the Higashiyama Archive of the Kyoto Imperial Palace.
According to the Doyà «ki, the ceremonial robes of child emperors (ç«¥å¸Â, dà Âtei) are described as follows: âÂÂThe à Âsode, kosode, and mo were the same in color and embroidery as above.â This indicates that the outer robe (à Âsode), inner robe (kosode), and skirt panel (mo) were all red, just like those of adult emperors, and were adorned with embroidered motifs of the twelve imperial insignia.
The following is the standard composition of the full ceremonial attire of an adult emperor, including the kon'e:
As described above, the composition of the emperor's ceremonial attire is thought to have remained largely unchanged from the Heian period through the Sengoku period. However, some details did vary.
In Japan, the term ju refers to a white sash, but in China, it denoted a type of apron hanging from the waist. From the mid-Heian period onward, short sashes were customarily suspended in one or two strands from the waist.
As for the seki (imperial shoes), both red and black variants were used depending on the period, and it remains unclear which was originally standard. The pair believed to have belonged to Emperor Shà Âmu and stored in the Shà Âsà Âin are red. Two types of shità Âzu (imperial socks) also existed: red-based and white-based.
Eight of the twelve imperial insignia (jà «nishà Â)âÂÂsun, moon, stars, mountain, dragon, fire, pheasant (kachà «), and sà ÂiâÂÂare embroidered on the red à Âsode (outer robe). Each motif is expressed through embroidery. At the enthronement of Emperor Kà Âmyà  in 1337 (Kenmu 4), the motifs were embroidered onto separate silk pieces and then applied to the garment. In relics from the early modern period, the robe belonging to Emperor Higashiyama has the motifs directly embroidered on the fabric, while that of Emperor Kà Âmei features the motifs embroidered on separate patches that were sewn onto the garment.
The mo (裳, pleated skirt) shares the same red ground as the à Âsode and is embroidered with the remaining four motifs of the twelve imperial insignia: seaweed (sà Â), rice grains (funmai), fu (æ§, axe-shaped pattern), and Futsu (é»», a paired design resembling the Chinese character äºÂ).
There are several differences between the Japanese konbenâÂÂa combination of the konâÂÂe (imperial robe) and benkan (imperial crown)âÂÂand its Chinese (Tang dynasty) counterpart.
The system of Twelve Imperial Insignia (jà «nishà Â) for the konben in Japan was established during the reign of Emperor Saga. However, no envoys to Tang China (Kentà Âshi) were dispatched during his reign, and only two such missions were sent in the entire Heian period. This has led some scholars to suggest that the âÂÂTang-styleâ elements of Japanese court dress were imagined rather than based on firsthand knowledge of contemporary Chinese customs.