Kajkavian is a South Slavic supradialect or language spoken primarily by Croats in much of Central Croatia and Gorski Kotar.
It is part of the South Slavic dialect continuum, being transitional to the supradialects of ÃÂakavian, à  tokavian and the Slovene language. There are differing opinions over whether Kajkavian is best considered a dialect of the Serbo-Croatian language or a fully-fledged language of its own, as it is only partially mutually intelligible with either ÃÂakavian or à  tokavian and bears more similarities to Slovene; it is transitional to and fully mutually intelligible with Prekmurje Slovene and the dialects in Slovenian Lower Styria's region of Prlekija in terms of phonology and vocabulary.
Outside Croatia's northernmost regions, Kajkavian is also spoken in Austrian Burgenland and a number of enclaves in Hungary along the Austrian and Croatian border and in Romania.
The term "Kajkavian" and the broader classification of what defines this dialect are relatively modern constructs. The dialect's name originates from the interrogative pronoun "kaj" ("what"). The names of the other supradialects of Serbo-Croatian also originate from their respective variants of the interrogative pronoun. The pronouns are just general indicators and not strict identifiers of the dialects. Some Kajkavian dialects use "ÃÂa" (common in ÃÂakavian), while certain ÃÂakavian dialects, like the Buzet dialect in Istria, use "kaj". The names of these dialects are based on the most common pronoun used, not an absolute rule.
Autonyms used throughout history by various Kajkavian writers have been manifold, ranging from Slavic (slavonski, slovenski, slovinski) to Croatian (horvatski) or Illyrian (illirski). The naming went through several phases, with the Slavic-based name initially being dominant. Over time, the name Croatian started gaining ground mainly during the 17th century, and by the beginning of the 18th century, it had supplanted the older name Slavic. The name also followed the same evolution in neighboring Slovene Prekmurje and some other border areas in what is now Slovenia, although there the name Slovene-Croatian (slovensko-horvatski) existed as well. The actual term Kajkavian (kajkavski), including as an adjective, was invented in the 19th century and is credited to Serbian philologist ÃÂuro DaniÃÂiÃÂ, while it was generally used and promoted in the 20th century works by Croatian writer Miroslav Krleà ¾a. The term is today accepted by its speakers in Croatia.
In English, Kajkavian is sometimes spelled as Kaykavian, Kaikavian or Caicavian.
Historically, the classification of Kajkavian has been a subject of much debate regarding both the question of whether it ought to be considered a dialect or a language, as well as the question of what its relation is to neighboring vernaculars.
The problem with classifying Kajkavian within South Slavic stems in part from its both structural differences and closesness with neighboring ÃÂakavian and à  tokavian speeches as well as its historical closeness to Slovene speeches. Some Slavists maintain that when the separation of Western South Slavic speeches happened, they separated into five divergent groups â Slovene, Kajkavian, ÃÂakavian, Western à  tokavian and Eastern à  tokavian, as a result of this, throughout history Kajkavian has often been categorized differently, either a node categorized together with Serbo-Croatian or Slovene. Furthermore, there do exist few old isoglosses that separate almost all Slovene speeches from all other Western South Slavic dialects, and do exist innovations exist common to Kajkavian, ÃÂakavian, and Western à  tokavian that would separate them from Slovene. Croatian linguist Stjepan Ivà ¡iàhas used Kajkavian vocabulary and accentuation, which significantly differs from that of à  tokavian, as evidence to be a language in its own right. Josip SiliÃÂ, one of the main initiators behind the standardisation of Croatian, also regards Kajkavian as a distinct language by dint of its having significantly different morphology, syntax and phonology from the official à  tokavian-based standard. However, SiliÃÂ's theorization about three languages and systems of Croatian, based on Ferdinand de Saussure and Eugenio CoÃÂeriu concepts, is criticized for being exaggerated, incomprehensible and logically non-existent. According to Ranko MatasoviÃÂ, Kajkavian is equally Croatian as ÃÂakavian and à  tokavian dialects. Mate Kapoviànotes that the dialects are practical and provisory linguistic inventions which should not be misunderstood and extrapolated outside the context of the dialect continuum.
According to Mijo LonÃÂariÃÂ (1988), the formation of the Proto-Kajkavian linguistic and territorial unit would be around the 10th century (when it separated from Southwestern Slavic), until the 12th century it is a separate node of Croatian-Serbian language family (excluding Slovene), between the 13th and 15th century when formed as a dialect with main features known today, until the end of the 17th century when lost a part of spoken territory (to the South, Southeast and especially to East in Slavonia), and from the 17th-18th century till present time when regained part of lost territory by forming new transitional dialects.
The Kajkavian speech area borders in the northwest on the Slovene language and in the northeast on the Hungarian language. In the east and southeast it is bordered by à  tokavian dialects roughly along a line that used to serve as the border between Civil Croatia and the Habsburg Military Frontier. Finally, in the southwest, it borders ÃÂakavian along the Kupa and Dobra rivers. It is thought by M. LonÃÂariàthat historically these borders extended further to the south and east, for example, the eastern border is thought to have extended at least well into modern-day Slavonia to the area around the town of Pakrac and Slatina, while East of it transitional Kajkavian-à  tokavian dialects. The transitional dialects during Ottoman invasion and migrations almost completely vanished.
The Croatian capital, Zagreb, has historically been a Kajkavian-speaking area, and Kajkavian is still in use by its older and (to a lesser extent) by its younger population. Modern Zagreb speech has come under considerable influence from à  tokavian. The vast intermingling of Kajkavian and standard à  tokavian in Zagreb and its surroundings has led to problems in defining the underlying structure of those speech-groups. As a result, many of the urban speeches (but not rural ones) have been labelled either Kajkavian koine or KajkavianâÂÂà  tokavian rather than Kajkavian or à  tokavian. Additionally, the forms of speech in use exhibit significant sociolinguistic variation. Research suggests that younger Zagreb-born speakers of the Kajkavian koine tend to consciously use more Kajkavian features when speaking to older people, showing that such features are still in their linguistic inventory even if not used at all times. However, the Kajkavian koine is distinct from Kajkavian as spoken in non-urban areas, and the mixing of à  tokavian and Kajkavian outside of urban settings is much rarer and less developed. The Kajkavian koine has also been named Zagreb à  tokavian by some.
As a result of the previously mentioned mixing of dialects, various Kajkavian features and characteristics have found their way into the standard à  tokavian (standard Croatian) spoken in those areas. For example, some of the prominent features are the fixed stress-based accentual system without distinctive lengths, the merger of /ÃÂ/ and /ÃÂ/ and of /dà ¾/ and /ÃÂ/, vocabulary differences as well as a different place of stress in words. The Zagreb variety of à  tokavian is considered by some to enjoy parallel prestige with the prescribed à  tokavian variety. Because of that, speakers whose native speech is closer to the standard variety often end up adopting the Zagreb speech for various reasons.
Kajkavian is closely related to Slovene â and to Prekmurje Slovene in particular. Higher amounts of correspondences between the two exist in inflection and vocabulary. The speakers of the Prekmurje dialect are Slovenes and Hungarian Slovenes who belonged to the Archdiocese of Zagreb during the Habsburg era (until 1918). They used Kajkavian as their liturgical language, and by the 18th century, Kajkavian had become the standard language of Prekmurje. Moreover, literary Kajkavian was also used in neighboring Slovene Styria during the 17th and 18th centuries, and in parts of it, education was conducted in Kajkavian.
As a result of various factors, Kajkavian has numerous differences compared to à  tokavian:
In addition to the above list of characteristics that set Kajkavian apart from à  tokavian, research suggests possible a closer relation with Kajkavian and the Slovak language, especially with the Central Slovak dialects upon which standard Slovak is based. As modern-day Hungary used to be populated by Slavic-speaking peoples prior to the arrival of Hungarians, there have been hypotheses on possible common innovations of future West and South Slavic speakers of that area. Kajkavian is the most prominent of the South Slavic speeches in sharing the most features that could potentially be common Pannonian innovations.
Some Kajkavian words bear a closer resemblance to other Slavic languages such as Russian than they do to à  tokavian or ÃÂakavian. For instance gda (also seen as shorter "da") seems to be at first glance unrelated to kada, however when compared to Russian úþóôð, Slovene kdaj, or Prekmurje Slovene gda, kda, the relationship becomes apparent. Kajkavian kak (how) and tak (so) are exactly like their Russian cognates and Prekmurje Slovene compared to à  tokavian, ÃÂakavian, and standard Slovene kako and tako. (This vowel loss occurred in most other Slavic languages; à  tokavian is a notable exception, whereas the same feature in Macedonian is probably not due to Serbo-Croatian influence because the word is preserved in the same form in Bulgarian, to which Macedonian is much more closely related than to Serbo-Croatian).
The number of vowels and consonants can vary by region, but the typical Kajkavian phoneme set includes 7 vowels and 23 consonants.
In most cases, voiced consonants are devoiced at the end of words, unless followed by a word beginning with a vowel or voiced consonant. For example, the words grob (grave), poleg (next to, alongside) and njegov (his) become grop, polek and njegof respectively.
Linguistic investigation began during the 19th century, although the research itself often ended in non-linguistic or outdated conclusions. Since that was the age of national revivals across Europe as well as the South Slavic lands, the research was steered by national narratives. Within that framework, Slovene philologists such as Franz Miklosich and Jernej Kopitar attempted to reinforce the idea of Slovene and Kajkavian unity and asserted that Kajkavian speakers are Slovenes. On the other hand, Josef Dobrovský also claimed linguistic and national unity between the two groups but under the Croatian ethnonym.
The first modern dialectal investigations of Kajkavian started at the end of the 19th century. The Ukrainian philologist A. M. Lukjanenko wrote the first comprehensive monograph on Kajkavian (titled ÃÂðùúðòÃÂúþõ ýðÃÂãÃÂiõ (Kajkavskoe nareÃÂie) meaning The Kajkavian dialect) in Russian in 1905. Kajkavian dialects have been classified along various criteria: for instance Serbian philologist Aleksandar Beliàdivided (1927) the Kajkavian dialect according to the reflexes of Proto-Slavic phonemes /tj/ and /dj/ into three subdialects: eastern, northwestern and southwestern.
However, later investigations did not corroborate BeliÃÂ's division. Contemporary Kajkavian dialectology begins with Croatian philologist Stjepan Ivà ¡iÃÂ's work "Jezik Hrvata kajkavaca" (The Language of Kajkavian Croats, 1936), which highlighted accentual characteristics. Due to the great diversity within Kajkavian primarily in phonetics, phonology, and morphology, the Kajkavian dialect atlas features a large number of subdialects: from four identified by Ivà ¡iàto six proposed by Croatian linguist Brozovià(formerly the accepted division) all the way up to fifteen according to a monograph by Croatian linguist Mijo LonÃÂarià(1995). The traditional division in six sub-dialects includes: zagorsko-meÃÂimurski, krià ¾evaÃÂko-podravski, turopoljsko-posavski, prigorski (transitional to Central ÃÂakavian), donjosutlanski (migratory transitional ÃÂakavian-ikavian which became Kajkavian), and goranski (also transitional which is more Kajkavian in lesser Eastern part, while more Slovene in main Western part). Kajkavian categorization of transitional dialects, like for example of prigorski, is provisory.
Kajkavian is mainly spoken in northern and northwestern Croatia. The mixed half-Kajkavian towns along the eastern and southern edge of the Kajkavian-speaking area are PitomaÃÂa, ÃÂazma, Kutina, PopovaÃÂa, Sunja, Petrinja, Martinska Ves, Ozalj, Ogulin, Fuà ¾ine, and ÃÂabar, including newer à  tokavian enclaves of Bjelovar, Sisak, Glina, Donja Dubrava and Novi Zagreb. The southernmost Kajkavian villages are Krapje at Jasenovac; and Pavuà ¡ek, Dvorià ¡ÃÂe and Hrvatsko selo in Zrinska Gora (R. Fureà ¡ & A. Jembrih: Kajkavski u povijesnom i sadaà ¡njem obzorju p. 548, Zabok 2006).
The major cities in northern Croatia are located in what was historically a Kajkavian-speaking area, mainly Zagreb, Koprivnica, Krapina, Krià ¾evci, Varaà ¾din, ÃÂakovec. The typical archaic Kajkavian is today spoken mainly in Hrvatsko Zagorje hills and MeÃÂimurje plain, and in adjacent areas of northwestern Croatia where immigrants and the à  tokavian standard had much less influence. Many of northern Croatian urban areas today are partly à  tokavianized due to the influence of the standard language and immigration of à  tokavian speakers. Other southeastern people who immigrate to Zagreb from à  tokavian territories often pick up rare elements of Kajkavian in order to assimilate, notably the pronoun "kaj" instead of "à ¡to" and the extended use of future anterior (futur drugi), but they never adapt well because of alien eastern accents and ignoring Kajkavian-ÃÂakavian archaisms and syntax.
The most peculiar Kajkavian dialect (Bednjounski) is spoken in Bednja in northernmost Croatia.
Writings that are judged by some as being distinctly Kajkavian can be dated to around the 12th century. The first comprehensive works in Kajkavian started to appear during the 16th century at a time when Central Croatia gained prominence due to the geopolitical environment since it was free from Ottoman occupation. The most notable work of that era was Ivanuà ¡ Pergoà ¡iÃÂ's , released in 1574. was a translation of István Werbà Âczy's .
At the same time, many Protestant writers of the Slovene lands also released their works in Kajkavian in order to reach a wider audience, while also using some Kajkavian features in their native writings. During that time, the autonym used by the writers was usually (Slavic), (Croatian) or (Illyrian).
After that, numerous works appeared in the Kajkavian literary language: chronicles by Vramec, liturgical works by Ratkaj, HabdeliÃÂ, Mulih; poetry by Ana Katarina Zrinska and Fran Krsto Frankopan, and a dramatic opus by Tituà ¡ BrezovaÃÂki. Kajkavian-based are important lexicographic works like Jambreà ¡iÃÂ's "", 1670, and the monumental (2,000 pages and 50,000 words) Latin-Kajkavian-Latin dictionary "" (including also some ÃÂakavian and à  tokavian words marked as such) by Ivan Belostenec (posthumously, 1740). Miroslav Krleà ¾a's poetic work "" drew heavily on Belostenec's dictionary. Kajkavian grammars include Kornig's, 1795, MatijeviÃÂ's, 1810 and ÃÂurkoveÃÂki's, 1837.
During that time, the Kajkavian literary language was the dominant written form in its spoken area along with Latin and German. Until Ljudevit Gaj's attempts to modernize the spelling, Kajkavian was written using Hungarian spelling conventions. Kajkavian began to lose its status during the Croatian National Revival in mid-19th Century when the leaders of the Illyrian movement opted to use the à  tokavian dialect as the basis for the future South Slavic standard language, the reason being that it had the highest number of speakers. Initially, the choice of à  tokavian was accepted even among Slovene intellectuals, but later it fell out of favor. The Zagreb linguistic school was opposed to the course that the standardization process took. Namely, it had almost completely ignored Kajkavian (and ÃÂakavian) dialects which was contrary to the original vision of Zagreb school. With the notable exception of vocabulary influence of Kajkavian on the standard Croatian register (but not the Serbian one), there was very little to no input from other non-à  tokavian dialects. Instead, the opposite was done, with some modern-day linguists calling the process of 19th-century standardization an event of "neo-à  tokavian purism" and a "purge of non-à  tokavian elements".
Early 20th century witnessed a drastic increase in released Kajkavian literature, although by then it had become part of what was considered Croatian dialectal poetry with no pretense of serving as a standard written form. The most notable writers of this period were among others, Antun Gustav Matoà ¡, Miroslav Krleà ¾a, Ivan Goran KovaÃÂiÃÂ, Dragutin Domjaniàand Nikola PaviÃÂ.
Kajkavian lexical treasure is being published by the Croatian Academy of Sciences and Arts in ("Dictionary of the Croatian Kajkavian Literary Language", 8 volumes, 1999).
Later, Dario Vid Balog, actor, linguist and writer translated the New Testament in Kajkavian.
In 2018 is published the Kajkavian translation of Antoine de Saint-Exupéry's The Little Prince () by Kajkavsko spravià ¡ÃÂe aka .
Below are examples of the Lord's Prayer in the Croatian variant of à  tokavian, literary Kajkavian and a MeÃÂimurje variant of the Kajkavian dialect.
Kajkavian shares similarities in both vocabulary and pronunciation with Slovene and Croatian à  tokavian. The following is a comparison of some words in Kajkavian, Prekmurje Slovene, Standard Slovene and Standard Croatian (à  tokavian), along with their English translations. The Kajkavian and Prekmurje Slovene vocabulary is drawn from various regions.
During Yugoslavia in the 20th century, Kajkavian was mostly restricted to private communication, poetry and folklore. With the recent regional democratizing and cultural revival beginning in the 1990s, Kajkavian partly regained its former half-public position chiefly in Zagorje and Varaà ¾din Counties and local towns, where there is now some public media e.g.: