Jëvaka (; ) was the personal physician () of the Buddha and the Indian King BimbisÃÂra. He lived in RÃÂjagá¹Âha, present-day Rajgir, in the 5th century BCE. Sometimes described as the "Medicine King" () and "Thrice Crowned physician" he figures prominently in legendary accounts in Asia as a model healer, and is honoured as such by traditional healers in several Asian countries.
Accounts about Jëvaka can be found in Early Buddhist Texts in many textual traditions such as the PÃÂli and Mà «lasarvÃÂstivÃÂda traditions, as well as later Buddhist discourses and devotional AvadÃÂna texts. Textual traditions agree that Jëvaka was born as a foundling of a courtesan (gaá¹ÂikÃÂ), but not who his parents were exactly. Regardless, Jëvaka was found and raised by people from the royal court of King BimbisÃÂra. As he grew up, Jëvaka decided to travel to Taká¹£aà ÂilÃÂ, to learn traditional medicine from a well-respected teacher. He turned out to be a promising student, and after seven years, started his healing profession in RÃÂjagá¹Âha. His medical feats gained him a reputation and he was quickly appointed as the personal physician of King BimbisÃÂra and the Buddha. As Jëvaka came more into contact with the Buddha, he became an important supporter of the religion and eventually founded the JëvakarÃÂma monastery. Later, BimbisÃÂra was killed by his son Ajatashatru, who usurped the throne. Eventually, Jëvaka was instrumental in bringing him to see the Buddha, to whom the new king repented the deeds he had done.
In the texts, Jëvaka is depicted performing complicated medical procedures, including those that could be interpreted as brain surgery. Scholars are in debate to which extent these depictions have historical value. Regardless, Jëvaka is honoured throughout Asian history by Buddhists, and to some extent by healers outside of Buddhism, as a model physician and Buddhist saint. Several medieval medical texts and procedures in India and China are attributed to him. Up until the present day, Jëvaka is honoured by Indians and Thai as a patron of traditional medicine, and he has a central role in all ceremonies involving Thai traditional medicine. Furthermore, Jëvaka's legendary persona has had an important role in helping to proselytise and legitimise Buddhism. Some of the details of Jëvaka's accounts were adjusted to fit the local milieus in which they were passed on. The JëvakarÃÂma monastery was identified by the Chinese pilgrim Xuan Zang in the 7th century, and it was excavated in the 19th century. Presently, it is one of the oldest Buddhist monasteries with archaeological remains still in existence.
The life of Jëvaka is described in several early Buddhist textual traditions, that is, in the PÃÂli language, Chinese (from the Dharmaguptaka, Mahëà ÂÃÂsaka and SarvÃÂstivÃÂda traditions, all translated from Indic texts in the 5th century CE), Tibetan (Mà «lasarvÃÂstivÃÂda) and Sanskrit texts. Jëvaka's story can be found in the texts of monastic discipline (PÃÂli and ) of which the oldest stratum can be dated back to the first half of the 4th century BCE. This stratum includes rules and regulations about medicine, also relating the life and work of Jëvaka, and can be found in various textual traditions.
Furthermore, in the Chinese canon of Buddhist scriptures, two separate discourses () can be found that are not part of the Vinaya, titled the ÃÂmrapÃÂlë and Jëvaka Sà «tra (known as T. 554) and the similarly titled ÃÂmrapÃÂlë and Jëvaka AvadÃÂna Sà «tra (T. 553). The latter two discourses originate from before the 5th century CE and between 7th and 10th century respectively, both translated from a Sanskrit or Central Asian source. Traditionally, the two translations were attributed to An Shigao (148180 CE), but this was probably an attempt to make them look more ancient and legitimate. Historian C. Pierce Salguero argues that they were probably based on a translation made by Zhu Fahu (233ñ308 CE), as well as early Vinaya and 5th-century apocryphal material. Whereas the Vinaya accounts are intended for a monastic audience, the two Jëvaka Sà «tras appear to be more popular versions of the account, meant for a wider lay audience. The T. 554 sà «tra most likely incorporated and sometimes replaced the early Vinaya accounts in the Mahëà ÂÃÂsaka and SarvÃÂstivÃÂda canons, some of which have hardly been passed down as part of the Vinaya, and can therefore only be found within that sà «tra. The other T. 553 sà «tra is most likely based on the T. 554, but has been expanded using material from the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya.
Besides these sources, several AvadÃÂna texts also contain accounts about Jëvaka. There are also numerous references to him in Indian literature that is not Buddhist, such as the MÃÂá¹Âharavá¹Âtti, a commentary to the SÃÂá¹Âkhyasà «tra, and the satirical poems of Ká¹£emendra, the 11th-century Kashmiri poet.
Salguero and fellow historian Kenneth Zysk have compared the different recensions of the story and have argued that none of them are the original text, and thus the original narrative cannot be known. Instead, they argue that the different narratives were adjusted to fit with local traditions. For example, Salguero argues that the medieval Jëvaka Sà «tras that are not part of the Vinaya were written based on much indigenous knowledge of Chinese medicine: some of the healing methods Jëvaka uses, both in the Jëvaka Sà «tras and the Vinaya texts, are more Chinese than Indian, and many motifs in his biography are drawn from legends of other famous Chinese physicians. Zysk notes that the PÃÂli recension is more practical, whereas the traditions influenced by MahÃÂyÃÂna teachings deploy more magical and miraculous motifs. He also observes that the Tibetan and Sanskrit accounts depict more treatments that appear traditional Indian (ÃÂyurveda) in nature. Each recension has its own regional character in understanding the diseases and having Jëvaka heal them, although there are also many similarities.
Jëvaka is described in Buddhist texts as a contemporary of the Buddha, who most scholars date to the 5th century BCE. There are significant differences in how Jëvaka's early life is rendered according to the different textual traditions. In what appears to be the earliest version of the narrative, Jëvaka is described as a foundling discarded by a courtesan with no royal blood, and was later found and raised in the court by Prince Abhaya. In later versions, the story has been embellished to appeal to a wider audience, as Jëvaka's mother is identified with the courtesan of divine origin and Buddhist disciple ÃÂmrapÃÂlë, and the previously unnamed father becomes none other than King BimbisÃÂra. Furthermore, some versions of the story attempt to show that Jëvaka is the real "Medicine King", a title used for other legendary healers such as the Chinese healers Bian Que and Hua Tuo. Many motifs in these accounts point in this direction: for example, the Jëvaka Sà «tras state that Jëvaka was born with acupuncture needles and herbs in his hand, which is used as proof that Jëvaka is superior to other Chinese healers. In the Sanskrit and Tibetan version, Jëvaka is recognised and named the "Medicine King" by the court on three occasion, each time after a medical miracle. He is therefore also described as the "Thrice-crowned Physician".
Texts from the earliest, PÃÂli tradition, as well as the Chinese Dharmaguptaka Vinaya and the T. 553 sà «tra, describe that Jëvaka was born in RÃÂjagá¹Âha (present-day Rajgir) as a child of a gaá¹Âikà(; in the PÃÂli and Dharmaguptaka canons this was not ÃÂmrapÃÂlë, but SalÃÂvatë), who had him discarded on a trash heap by a slave. He was later seen by a prince called Abhaya, son of King BimbisÃÂra, who asked whether the child was still alive. When the people responded that it was, he decided to raise him and named him "he who is alive" (), for having survived the ordeal. The PÃÂli, Tibetan and Sanskrit traditions explain that his second name became KomÃÂrabhacca, because he is raised by a prince (), but scholars have suggested the name is more likely related to the KaumÃÂrabhá¹Âtya: ancient Indian obstetrics and pediatrics, one of the eight branches of the ÃÂyurveda. As he grew up, Jëvaka learnt about his humble origins, and determined to find himself good education to compensate for his background. Without Prince Abhaya's awareness, he went to learn medicine at an ancient place of learning called Taká¹£aà Âilà(what the Greeks called Taxila), presently identified with a city near Islamabad, Pakistan.
Sanskrit texts and early Tibetan translations in the Mà «lasarvÃÂstivÃÂda tradition state that Jëvaka was born as an illegitimate child of King BimbisÃÂra and a merchant's wife, who in the Chinese Jëvaka Sà «tras is identified with the courtesan ÃÂmrapÃÂlë. In the Sanskrit and Tibetan recension, however, the wife of the merchant remains unnamed, whereas ÃÂmrapÃÂlë is considered to be the mother of Prince Abhaya instead of Jëvaka. The Sanskrit and Tibetan texts, as well the T. 554 sà «tra, explain that the king had an illicit affair with the wife and later she informed him that she was pregnant. The king told the mother that if the child should turn out male, she should bring it to him to be raised in court. When it was born, she had the child placed in front of the palace in a chest. The king had the chest brought in and asked whether the child was still alive. When his servants responded that it was, he called it "he who is alive" (Sanskrit and ). The king had the child raised in the court by a person called Zho-nu Jigmed in the Tibetan version of the story, and in the court the child's interest in medicine was sparked when he saw some vaidyas (physicians) visit. He therefore decided to train as a physician in Taká¹£aà ÂilÃÂ. In the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya and the Chinese Jëvaka Sà «tras, Jëvaka considered his medical teachers in the court inferior and demonstrated his superior medical knowledge, after which he decided to further his studies in Taká¹£aà ÂilÃÂ. During that time, Taká¹£aà Âilàwas under Achaemenid rule, following the Achaemenid conquest of the Indus Valley circa 515 BCE.
Texts in the Chinese tradition relate that Jëvaka was a crown prince in a kingdom in Central India. When the king died, his younger brother prepared an army to battle Jëvaka. But Jëvaka said to his brother that he had not much interest in the throne, because his mind was focused on the Buddha instead. He exposed his chest, showing a Buddha image engraved on his heart. The younger brother was impressed and called off his army. Because of this story, Jëvaka is called the 'Heart-exposing Arhat' ().
In all versions of the story, Jëvaka gave up his claim to the throne to study in Taká¹£aà ÂilÃÂ. He was probably sixteen when he went there.
He was trained for seven years in Taká¹£aà Âilàby a á¹Âá¹£i (seer) called ÃÂtreya Punarvasu, which Tibetan texts say used to be the physician of BimbisÃÂra's father.
Jëvaka learned the classical ÃÂyurvedic medical treatises of the time, such as the Caraka Saá¹Âhità(attributed to ÃÂtreya) and the Suà Âruta Saá¹ÂhitÃÂ, although some later treatments of Jëvaka also point at other medieval traditions of knowledge. ÃÂtreya helped Jëvaka build up his observation skills. Jëvaka became known for his powers of observation, as depicted in many stories. In one account, Jëvaka looked at the footprint of an elephant and was able to describe the rider of the elephant in great detail, just basing himself on the elephants' footprint. Tibetan texts do state that Jëvaka suffered from jealous fellow-students, however, who accused ÃÂtreya of favouring him, because he was from the court. In the PÃÂli and Chinese version of the story, ÃÂtreya then sent Jëvaka and his fellow pupils to look for any plant in the forest that did not have medicinal qualities. Jëvaka returned disappointed, however, telling ÃÂtreya that he could not find a single plant of which he did not recognise its medicinal qualities. When ÃÂtreya was satisfied with this progress, he gave Jëvaka a bit of money and sent him off, but not before acknowledging him as his next successor.
In the Sanskrit and Tibetan recensions, however, the test of the forest is done before accepting Jëvaka in Taká¹£aà Âila, as opposed to the exam at the end of his studies. After Jëvaka passed the test, was admitted and learnt at the centre for several years, he started to demonstrate his medical superiority and was recognised as such by ÃÂtreya. He finished his studies with ÃÂtreya and continued his studies at the city of Bhadraá¹ kara in Vidarbha, where he studied the textbook called the Sarvabhà «taruta, which may refer to a book about magical chants and dharanis. After that, he traveled further and came in possession of a miraculous object that helped him to see through the human body and discover any ailments. In this account, which could also be found in the Jëvaka Sà «tras, Jëvaka came across a man carrying wooden sticks. In some accounts, the man seemed to suffer terribly because of the effect of the wooden sticks, being emaciated and sweating; in other accounts, the wooden sticks which the man carried allowed any by-passers to see through his back. Regardless, Jëvaka bought the sticks and found that, according to most of the Chinese texts, one of the sticks originated from a miraculous "Medicine King Tree" (): the tree of Bhaiá¹£ajrayÃÂjan, who later MahÃÂyÃÂna texts would describe as a bodhisattva, a Buddha-to-be, focused on healing. The Tibetan and Sanskrit version, however, relates that there was a gem hidden between the sticks which was the source of the miracles. Regardless, the miraculous object enables him to see through a patient's body and diagnose his illness, as the object "illuminates his inside as a lamp lights up a house". These accounts may have led to a myth about an ancient "ultrasound probe", as imagined in medieval Buddhist kingdoms of Asia.
According to the PÃÂli texts, on his way back to RÃÂjagá¹Âha, Jëvaka needed money for his travelling expenses, so he was forced to start working in SÃÂketa. A rich merchant () asked for help for his wife, but since many physicians had failed to heal her, Jëvaka was reluctant and stated that he would ask for no fee if his treatment was unsuccessful. He successfully treated her though and was rewarded generously. After his return in RÃÂjagá¹Âha, he gave his first earnings to Prince Abhaya, who refused these but had Jëvaka work in the palace. He quickly became wealthy because of his service to influential patients, including King BimbisÃÂra. Although he received good payments from his wealthy customers, the texts state he also treated poor patients for free. When King BimibisÃÂra suffered from an anal fistula, he called upon the help of Jëvaka. After curing the king of his fistula, Jëvaka was appointed by the king as his personal physician and as a personal physician to the Buddha.
Jëvaka was depicted healing a misplacement of intestines, performing an operation of trepanning on a patient, removing an intracranial mass and performing nose surgery. In T. 553, as well as in the Dharmaguptaka Vinaya, he healed a "disease of the head" by treating the patient with ghee through the nose, and he is depicted in PÃÂli texts as performing laparotomy, removing post-traumatic volvulus and a cesarean section on patients under some form of anaesthesia. This and some other descriptions of Jëvaka's medical procedures follow the protocol of the Suà Âruta and Charaka Saá¹ÂhitÃÂs closely. The Jëvaka Sà «tras describe that he also performed acupuncture, but this must have been a Chinese interpolation in the narrative, since this was a Chinese practice.
In a more psychological case, Jëvaka treated another seá¹Âá¹Âhë, this time with a brain condition. After having performed brain surgery, he told the patient to lie still on the right side for seven years, on the left side for another seven years and on his back for yet another seven years. The patient lied on each side for seven days and could not lie still for longer, standing up from his sleeping place. He confessed this to Jëvaka, who revealed to him that he ordered him seven years on each side just to persuade him to complete the full seven days on each side.
In another case described in the Mà «lasarvÃÂstivÃÂda texts, King BimbisÃÂra lent Jëvaka to King Pradyota (), the King of Ujjeni, to heal his jaundice. Jëvaka knew through the power of his magical wood that Pradyota was poisoned by a snake and could only be healed by using ghee, which Pradyota hated. Praydyota was prone to anger and Jëvaka was in doubt whether he should try to heal him. Consulting the Buddha, the Buddha said that Jëvaka had taken a vow in a previous life that he would heal people's bodies, whereas the Buddha had taken a vow that he would heal people's mindsJëvaka then decided to attempt to heal the king. Therefore, Jëvaka gave a decoction to the king containing ghee, without him being aware. Anticipating the king's response, Jëvaka fled the palace on one of the king's elephants. When King Pradyota became furious as Jëvaka expected, he sent one of his servants to catch and bring back Jëvaka. The servant caught up with Jëvaka, but as they were eating, Jëvaka secretly served him a strong purgative. By the time they manage to get back to the palace, King Pradyota was healed and no longer angry, rewarding Jëvaka generously for healing him. In the PÃÂli version, he rewarded him by giving him an expensive cloth, which Jëvaka then offered to the Buddha; in the Mà «lasarvÃÂstivÃÂda version, the king rewarded Jëvaka by listening to the teaching of the Buddha, the only payment Jëvaka accepted.
Accounts in medieval Japanese and Chinese literature depict Jëvaka offering baths to the Buddha and dedicating the religious merit to all sentient beings. The story was used in East Asian societies to promote the medicinal and ritual value of bathing, emphasizing the benefits of offering such baths to the monastic community as a form of "medical karma".
Some scholars have pointed to accounts about Jëvaka as evidence of ancient medical practices, with medical historians Thomas and Peter Chen stating that "[i]t is likely that the salient events of Jivaka's life and his medical feats are authentic" and analysing some of Jëvaka's procedures from a viewpoint of scientific medical practice. Salguero is more skeptical, however, and argues that "[m]edical legends simply cannot be considered evidence of medical practice".
PÃÂli texts often describe Jëvaka giving treatments to the Buddha for several ailments, such as when the Buddha had a cold, and when he was hurt after an attempt on his life by the rebellious monk Devadatta. The latter happened at a park called Maddakucchi, where Devadatta hurled a rock at the Buddha from a cliff. Although the rock was stopped by another rock midway, a splinter hit the Buddha's foot and caused him to bleed, but Jëvaka healed the Buddha. Jëvaka sometimes forgot to finish certain treatments, however. In such cases, the Buddha knew the healer's mind and finished the treatment himself. Jëvaka tried to heal the Buddha using only objects that are regarded as reverential, such as parts of the lotus flower instead of herbs from trees. Tibetan texts stated that Jëvaka very often checked up on the Buddha, up to three times a day. Jëvaka not only cared for the Buddha, but also expressed concern for the monastic community, at one point suggesting the Buddha that he had the monks exercise more often.
Apart from his role as a healer, Jëvaka also developed an interest in the Buddha's teachings. One PÃÂli text is named after Jëvaka: the Jëvaka Sutta. In this discourse, Jëvaka inquired about how to be a good lay devotee. He also specifically asked why the Buddha ate meat. The Buddha responded that a monk is only allowed to eat meat if the animal is not killed especially for himapart from that, meat is allowed. He continued by saying that a monk cannot be choosy about the food he is consuming, but should receive and eat food dispassionately, just to sustain his health. The discourse inspired Jëvaka, who decided to dedicate himself as a Buddhist lay person. The Tibetan tradition has another version of Jëvaka's conversion: Jëvaka's pride that he thought he was the best physician in the world obstructed him from accepting the Buddha. The Buddha sent Jëvaka to legendary places to find ingredients, and finally Jëvaka discovered there is still a lot he did not know yet about medicine, and it turned out that the Buddha knew a lot more. When Jëvaka accepted the Buddha as "the supreme of physicians", he was more receptive to the Buddha's teachings and the Buddha started teaching him. Jëvaka took upon himself the five moral precepts.
PÃÂli texts relate that Jëvaka later attained the state of à ÂrotÃÂpanna, a state preceding enlightenment. Having accomplished this, he started to visit the Buddha twice a week. Since he had to travel quite far for that often, he decided to donate a mango grove close to RÃÂjagá¹Âha and built a monastery there. The monastery was used by monks during the yearly rains retreat. Later on, Jëvaka was the first layman recorded to offer robes to Buddhist monks. It was probably out of health considerations that Jëvaka offered the robes, since before that time, Buddhist monks would usually sew their robes together from pieces of rag left behind, or from corpses, which was less hygienic. At the time of Jëvaka's gift of robes, the Buddha was ill and this illness could be related to lack of hygiene. On a similar note, Jëvaka is described to donate robes made of woollen material, to be used in the winter.
At the end period of the Buddha's ministry, King BimbisÃÂra was imprisoned by his son Ajatashatru, who usurped the throne. Attempting to starve his own father, Ajatashatru heard that his mother tried to prevent BimbisÃÂra from starving. According to the Mà «lasarvÃÂstivÃÂda texts, Ajatashatru nearly killed his mother out of anger, but was stopped by Jëvaka and a minister, who warned him that he would be considered a casteless outcast () if he killed his own mother. Later on, BimbisÃÂra did starve and died. Ajatashatru developed a tumour after his father's death, and asked Jëvaka to heal it. Jëvaka said he needed the meat of a child to heal the tumour. As Ajatashatru was planning to eat a child, he remembered that he killed his father. When he thought about the killing of his father, the tumour disappeared. Ajatashatru became ashamed of what he had done. Eventually, Jëvaka managed to bring Ajatashatru to see the Buddha to repent his misdeeds. In the Mà «lasarvastivÃÂda texts, this happened after Jëvaka raised examples of other evil people that could still be saved despite their misdeeds, and after Jëvaka reminded Ajatashatru that the Buddha was at the end of his life. In the MahÃÂsaá¹Âghika texts, however, Ajatashatru consulted his ministers about who he should go to look for counsel. Although his ministers recommended to see several other non-Buddhist teachers, eventually Jëvaka suggested the new king to see the Buddha.
In Buddhist texts, the Buddha declared Jëvaka foremost among laypeople in being beloved by people, and the PÃÂli texts name him as example of someone with unwavering faith in Buddhism. Jëvaka was that widely known for his healing skills, that he could not respond to all the people that want his help. Since Jëvaka gave priority to the Buddhist monastic community, some people needing medical help sought ordination as monks to get it. Jëvaka became aware of this and recommended the Buddha to screen people for diseases before ordaining, which the Buddha eventually did for five diseases.
Although Jëvaka was depicted as showing great respect for the Buddha and concern and help for the monastic community, there was at least one case in which he failed to show respect. This is the case of Paá¹Âá¹Âhaka, a monk who was considered stupid by many. Jëvaka also shared this opinion, and when he invited the Buddha and the monastic community for a meal, Paá¹Âá¹Âhaka was the only monk he left out. The Buddha, arriving for the meal, refused to start eating, insisting that someone fetched Paá¹Âá¹Âhaka. Jëvaka sent a servant to get Paá¹Âá¹Âhaka, but this servant was surprised to find 1,250 Paá¹Âá¹Âhakas walking around the monastery, as Paá¹Âá¹Âhaka brings about a supernatural accomplishment. Eventually, the real Paá¹Âá¹Âhaka joined the meal, but Jëvaka still did not acknowledge the monk's mental prowess. Jëvaka only changed his mind as Paá¹Âá¹Âhaka showed another supernatural accomplishment, stretching his arm very long to help take the Buddha's alms bowl for him. Jëvaka bowed at the monk's feet to request his forgiveness.
Medieval Chinese accounts about Jëvaka tend be hagiographic in nature, and were used more in the proselytising of Buddhism than regarded as medical biography. Since healing knowledge and the proselytising of Buddhism were closely connected, praise for Jëvaka's medical prowess also meant praise and legitimisation of Buddhism. In Chinese texts about medicine from the Six Dynasties period (early medieval), Jëvaka figures most prominently of all physicians, and his stories influenced the stories about other legendary physicians, as well as being influenced by their narratives. In East Asia, Jëvaka was associated with gynaecology, and the name Jëvaka is related to ancient female pathology and paediatrics. Several medieval medical formulas were named after him, and he is referred to in numerous medical texts from at least the 4th century CE onward. In 6th-century texts of Chinese pharmacology, the adage "Everything on earth is nothing but medicine" is attributed to him. In 10th-century Chinese medicine, many treatises were associated with or attributed to Jëvaka. There is also evidence that shows Jëvaka was regarded as an important figure for Indian ÃÂyurvedic medicine: for example, á¸Âalhaá¹Âa, an Indian scholar who lived between the 11th and 13th centuries, wrote in a commentary on the Suà Âruta Saá¹Âhitàthat "Jëvaka's compendium" was regarded as an authoritative text on children's diseases, though this text has now been lost. This does not mean that Jëvaka was revered unanimously by all of Asia; several medieval Indian texts such as the MÃÂá¹Âharavá¹Âtti, and the poems of Ká¹£emedra, depict him, as well as other physicians, as impostors. Among Indian texts, Buddhist texts tend to stand out in that they give much honour to the occupation of the physician, and medical knowledge was highly respected. The former may be related to the doctrine of salvation of Buddhism, in which the Buddha is often described as a doctor that cures the ills of the human race.
Jëvaka was and is for many Buddhists and traditional healers an icon and a source of inspiration. The figure of Jëvaka is presented in ancient texts as evidence for the superiority of Buddhism in both the realm of the spiritual as well as the medical. The Jëvaka Sà «tras and the Mà «lasarvÃÂstivÃÂda version describe that when Jëvaka meets the Buddha, the latter makes a statement that "I treat internal diseases; you treat external diseases", the word treat () in this context also meaning 'to reign over'. Throughout the medieval period, the accounts about Jëvaka were used to legitimate medical practices. In the early Buddhist texts which were translated in Chinese, Jëvaka was deified and described in similar terminology as used for Buddhas and bodhisattvas. He came to be called the "Medicine King", a term used for several legendary Chinese physicians. There is evidence that during the Tang dynasty (7th10th century), Jëvaka was worshipped along the Silk Road as a patron deity of children's health. Today, Jëvaka is seen by Indians as a patriarch of traditional healing, and is regarded by Thai people as the creator of traditional Thai massage and medicine. Thai people still venerate him to ask for assistance in healing ailments, and he plays a central role in nearly all ceremony that is part of traditional Thai medicine. Stories exist about Jëvaka's purported travels to Thailand.
In the Sanskrit textual traditions, Jëvaka is the ninth of the Sixteen Arhats, disciples that are entrusted to protect the Buddha's teaching until the arising of the next Buddha. He is therefore described in Buddhist texts as still being alive on a mountain peak called GandhamÃÂdana, between India and Sri Lanka. The monastery Jëvaka presented to the Buddhist community came to be known as the JëvakarÃÂma VihÃÂra, JëvakÃÂmravaá¹Âa or Jëvakambavana, and was identified by the Chinese pilgrim Xuan Zang ( 60264) with a monastery in Rajgir. The remains were discovered and excavated in the period from 1803 to 1857. The monastery is described by archaeologists as "... one of the earliest monasteries of India dating from the Buddha's time".