have a history that began over 1300 years ago when Japanese Buddhist priests, who wanted to understand Chinese sutras, adapted Chinese character dictionaries. Present-day Japanese lexicographers are exploring computerized editing and electronic dictionaries. According to Nakao Keisuke ():
<blockquote>It has often been said that dictionary publishing in Japan is active and prosperous, that Japanese people are well provided for with reference tools, and that lexicography here, in practice as well as in research, has produced a number of valuable reference books together with voluminous academic studies. (1998:35) </blockquote>
After introducing some Japanese "dictionary" words, this article will discuss early and modern Japanese dictionaries, demarcated at the 1603 CE lexicographical sea-change from Nippo Jisho, the first bilingual JapaneseâÂÂPortuguese dictionary. "Early" here will refer to lexicography during the Heian, Kamakura, and Muromachi periods (794âÂÂ1573); and "modern" to Japanese dictionaries from the Edo or Tokugawa shogunate era (1603âÂÂ1867) through the present.
First, it will be useful to introduce some key Japanese terms for dictionaries and collation (ordering of entry words) that the following discussion will be using.
The Wiktionary uses the English word ' to define a few synonyms including , , , , and . It also uses dictionary to translate six Japanese words.
The first three homophonous jiten compounds of ten ( "reference work; dictionary; classic; canon; model") are Chinese loanwords. However, Chinese distinguishes their pronunciations, avoiding the potential ambiguities of Sino-Japanese jiten: cÃÂdiÃÂn "word dictionary", zìdiÃÂn "character dictionary", or "encyclopedia". The usual Japanese word for "encyclopedia" is hyakka jiten ( "100/many subject dictionary", see Japanese encyclopedias). The jiten, jisho, and jibiki terms for dictionaries of kanji "Chinese characters" share the element ji ( "character; graph; letter; script; writing").
Lexicographical collation is straightforward for romanized languages, and most dictionaries enter words in alphabetical order. In contrast, the Japanese writing system, with kanji, hiragana, and katakana, creates complications for dictionary ordering. University of Arizona professor Don C. Bailey (1960:4) discusses how Japanese lexicography differentiates semantic, graphic, and phonetic collation methods, namely:
In general, jikeibiki organization is for a readers' dictionary, bunruitai for a writers' dictionary, and onbiki for both types.
The Japanese writing system originated with the introduction of Chinese characters around the 4th century CE, and early Japanese dictionaries developed from Chinese dictionaries circa the 7th century CE. These three Japanese collation systems were borrowed and adapted from Chinese character dictionaries.
The first, and oldest, Chinese system of collation by semantic field (for instance, "birds" or "fish") dates back to the Erya (). Only a few dictionaries like the Xiao Erya (), Guangya (), and Piya () used semantic collation. This system is inefficient looking up a word unless the dictionary user already knows its meaning; such as using Roget's Thesaurus without an alphabetical index. Bunruitai collation is obsolete among modern Japanese dictionaries, with the exception of thesauri.
The second system of dictionary collation by radicals (Chinese bushou, Japanese bushu, "section headers") originated with the 121 CE Shuowen Jiezi () . Japanese dictionaries followed the Chinese example of reducing the number of radicals: original 540 (Shuowen Jiezi), adjusted 542 (Yupian ()), condensed 214 (Zihui (), Kangxi Dictionary ()), and abridged 189 (Xinhua Zidian ()). Japanese jikeibiki collation by radical and stroke ordering is standard for character dictionaries, and does not require a user to know the meaning or pronunciation beforehand.
The third Chinese system of ordering by pronunciation is evident in a rime dictionary, which collates the characters by tone and rime. The 601 CE Qieyun () is the oldest extant Chinese dictionary collated by pronunciation, and was expanded in the Guangyun () and Jiyun () . The shortcoming of this unwieldy tone-rime method is that a user needs to know, or guess, the pronunciation of a character in order to look it up. The modern Chinese dictionary improvement is alphabetical collation by pinyin romanization. Japanese onbiki dictionaries historically changed from poetic iroha to practical gojà «on ordering around 1890. Compare the former pangram poem (i-ro-ha-ni-ho-he-to, chi-ri-nu-ru-wo, ... "Although flowers glow with color, They are quickly fallen, ...) with the latter "fifty sounds" 10 consonants by 5 vowels grid (a-i-u-e-o, ka-ki-ku-ke-ko, ...).
The first Japanese dictionaries are no longer extant and only known by titles. For example, the Nihon Shoki (tr. Aston 1896:354) says Emperor Tenmu was presented a dictionary in 682 CE, the Niina (, "New Characters") with 44 fascicles (kan ). The earliest dictionaries made in Japan were not for the Japanese language but rather dictionaries of Chinese characters written in Chinese and annotated in Japanese.
Japanese lexicography flowered during the Heian period, when Chinese culture and Buddhism began to spread throughout Japan. During the Kamakura and Muromachi eras, despite advances in woodblock printing technology, there was a decline in lexicography that Bailey (1960:22) describes as "a tendency toward simplification and popularization".
The following review of the first published Japanese dictionaries is divided into the above lexicographical jikeibiki, bunruitai, and onbiki types.
Jikeibiki graphic collation began with the oldest extant Japanese dictionary: the Tenrei Banshà  Meigi (), edited by the Heian monk and scholar Kà «kai. It enters approximately 1,000 characters under 534 radicals, and each entry gives the seal script character, Chinese fanqie reading, and definition (usually copied from the Yupian), but does not give native kun'yomi Japanese readings.
The first dictionary containing Japanese readings of kanji was the Shinsen Jikyà  (), which the editor Shà Âjà « () compiled from the Yupian and Qieyun. It enters 21,300 characters, giving both Chinese and Sino-Japanese readings, and cites many early Japanese texts. Internal organization innovatively combines jikeibiki and bunruitai methods; a simplified system of 160 radicals is ordered semantically (e.g., 5-7 are Rain, Air, and Wind).
The Buddhist Ruiju Myà Âgishà  () dictionary lists over 32,000 characters and compounds under 120 radicals. The structure and definitions closely follow the Chinese Yupian and Qieyun. This Heian reference work gives both Sino-Japanese and Japanese readings for kanji, usually with Kanbun annotations in citations from Chinese classic texts.
The Jikyà Âshà « () collates Chinese characters primarily by the 542 Yupian radicals and secondarily by semantic headings adapted from the Iroha Jiruishà Â. This Kamakura dictionary, edited by Sugawara no Tamenaga (), exists in 3, 7, and 20 fascicle editions that have convoluted textual histories.
The next jikeibiki collated dictionary of kanji was the Wagokuhen (). This "Japanese Yupian" was based on the Chinese Yupian, actually the 1013 Daguang yihui Yupian (, "Expanded and Enlarged Yupian"), which was current in Muromachi Japan. The Wagokuhen went through dozens of editions, which collate entries through various systems of (from 100 to 542) radicals, without any overt semantic subdivisions.
Two historical aspects of these logographically arranged Japanese jikeibiki dictionaries are reducing the number of radicals and semantically ordering them. The radical systems ranged from 542 (the Yupian), 534, 160, 120, down to 100. Both the Shinsen Jikyà  and Jikyà Âshà « refined logographic categorization with bunruitai-type arrangements. While Chinese dictionaries have occasional examples of semantically ordered radicals (for instance, Kangxi radicals 38 and 39 are Woman and Child), Japanese lexicography restructured radicals into more easily memorable sequences.
Japanese bunruitai semantic collation of dictionaries began with the 938 CE Wamyà  Ruijushà  (), compiled by Minamoto no Shitagà  (). This Heian dictionary adapts the ancient Chinese Erya dictionary's 19 semantic categories into 24 Japanese headings with subheadings. For instance, Heaven and Earth is subdivided into Stars and Constellations, Clouds and Rain, Wind and Snow, etc. The character entries give source citations, Chinese pronunciations, definitions, and Japanese readings in the ancient Man'yà Âgana character system.
The Kagakushà « () was an anonymous Muromachi era Japanese language dictionary or encyclopedia that defined some 3000 words into 18 semantic categories. It was designed for the literate public rather than for priests and literati, and was reissued many times.
Japanese onbiki phonetic collation began during the late Heian Period. The circa 1144–1165 CE Iroha Jiruishà  () was the first dictionary to group entries in the iroha order. Words are entered by 47 first kana syllables, each subdivided into 21 semantic groups.
The Setsuyà Âshà « () was a popular Muromachi dictionary collated in iroha order and subdivided into 12 (later 13) semantic categories. It defined current Japanese vocabulary rather than borrowed Sino-Japanese compounds, and went through many editions and reprints.
The 1484 Onkochishinsho () was the first Japanese dictionary to collate words in gojà «on rather than conventional iroha order. This Muromachi reference work enters about 13,000 words, first by pronunciation and then by 12 subject classifications.
All three of these onbiki dictionaries adapted the bunruitai method to collate primarily by first syllable and secondarily by semantic field. This is comparatively less efficient than modern Japanese dictionaries with single-sorting gojà «on collation by first syllable, second syllable, etc.
The development of early Japanese lexicography from ChineseâÂÂJapanese dictionaries has cross-linguistic parallels, for instance, early English language lexicography developed from LatinâÂÂEnglish dictionaries. Nonetheless, modern Japanese lexicography adapted to an unparalleled second foreign wave from Western language dictionaries and romanization.
During the Nanban trade Period (1543–1650 CE) when Japan was opened to Europeans, the Jesuit Mission Press published two groundbreaking dictionaries. The 1598 monolingual Rakuyà Âshà « (, "Collection of Fallen Leaves") gave Sino-Japanese and native Japanese readings of characters, and introduced the small raised circle (handakuten ) to indicate the p sound (compare ha and pa ). The 1603–1604 bilingual Japanese-Portuguese Nippo Jisho or Vocabvlario da Lingoa de Iapam dictionary is still cited as an authority for early Japanese pronunciation. The year 1604 was at the beginning of the Edo Period and also, as Nakao (1998:37) points out, the date of the first monolingual English dictionary, the Table Alphabeticall.
During the Sakoku Period (1641–1853) when Japan was closed to foreigners, with the exception of the Dutch East India Company, Rangaku ("Dutch/Western learning") influenced Japanese lexicography through bilingual Japanese and Dutch dictionaries. Another notable publication was the 1712 Wakan Sansai Zue () encyclopedia, which was based on the 1609 Chinese Sancai Tuhui ().
Kokugo jiten/jisho (/ "national language dictionary") means "JapaneseâÂÂJapanese dictionary, monolingual Japanese dictionary". This "national language" term kokugo, which Chinese borrowed as guoyu, usually refers to the Japanese language as taught in Japanese schools. Nihongo jisho ( "Japanese language dictionary") is a neologism that contrasts Japanese with other world languages. There are hundreds of kokugo dictionaries in print, ranging from huge multivolume tomes to paperback abridgments. According to Japanese translator Tom Gally (1999:n.p.), "While all have shortcomings, the best kokugo dictionaries are probably among the best reference works in existence in any language."
The Edo Kokugaku scholar Tanikawa Kotosuga (, 1709–1776) began compilation of the first full-scale Japanese language dictionary, the Wakun no Shiori or Wakunkan ( "Guidebook to Japanese Pronunciations"). This influential 9-volume dictionary of classical Japanese words was posthumously completed and finally published in 1887.
The first truly modern Japanese language dictionary was edited by the grammarian and English translator à Âtsuki Fumihiko (), who used Webster's Dictionary as the model for his pioneering Genkai ( "Sea of Words", 1889–1891). His revised 5-volume Daigenkai ( "Great/Comprehensive Sea of Words", Fuzambà Â, 1932–1937) dictionary continues to be cited for its definitions and etymologies.
The Dainihon Kokugo Jiten (, Fuzambà Â, 1915–1919), edited by Matsui Kanji (), contains 220,000 headwords, with detailed interpretations and almost complete source material.
The Daijiten ( "Great/Comprehensive Dictionary", Heibonsha 1934–1936), edited by Shimonaka Yasaburà  (), is the largest kokugo dictionary ever published. The original 26-volume edition, which is still available in condensed versions, entered over 700,000 headwords, listed by pronunciation, and covered a wide variety of Japanese vocabulary.
The Nihon Kokugo Daijiten (, Shogakukan, 1972–1976, 2nd ed. 2000–2002) is the successor to the Dainihon Kokugo Jiten. Matsui Shigekazu (), who led the compilation of the dictionary, is the grandson of Matsui Kanji. This multivolume historical dictionary enters about 500,000 headwords, and is currently the most complete reference work for the Japanese language.
The bestselling kokugo titles are practical 1-volume dictionaries rather than encyclopedic works like the Nihon Kokugo Daijiten. For present purposes, they are divided between large-size dictionaries that enter 100,000–200,000 headwords on 2000–3000 pages and medium-size ones with 60,000–100,000 on 1300–1500 pages. The following discussion will introduce the central kokugo dictionaries, excepting the numerous smallest editions.
Larger single-volume Japanese language dictionaries are a highly profitable and competitive market for Japanese publishing houses.
The hefty scale of these larger dictionaries provides comprehensive coverage of Japanese words, but also renders them cumbersome and unwieldy.
Medium single-volume dictionaries have comparative advantages in portability, usability, and price.
Some Japanese publishers sell both a larger dictionary with more archaisms and classical citations as well as a smaller condensation with more modern examples, for instance, Shogakukan's Daijisen and Gendai Kokugo Reikai Jiten.
Kan-Wa jiten ( "Kan[ji] Chinese [character]-Wa Japanese dictionary") means "Japanese dictionary of kanji (Chinese characters)". This unique type of monolingual dictionary enters Japanese borrowings of kanji and multi-character compounds (jukugo ), but is not a bilingual ChineseâÂÂJapanese dictionary. A KanâÂÂWa dictionary headword (oyaji "parent character") entry typically gives variant graphic forms, graphic etymology, readings, meanings, compounds, and idioms. Indexes usually include both radical-stroke and pronunciation (on and kun readings), and sometimes other character indexing systems like the four corner method.
The history of KanâÂÂWa dictionaries began with early Japanese references such as the Tenrei Banshà  Meigi and Ruiju Myà Âgishà  (above). In 1716, the Edo author of Yomihon, Tsuga Teishà  (, 1718–1794) published the Kà Âki Jiten (), a Japanese version of the Kangxi Dictionary, which standardized the Kan-Wa jiten system of 214 Kangxi radicals. The first dictionary titled with Kan-Wa was the Kan-Wa Daijiten ( "Great Kanji-Japanese Character Dictionary", Sanseido, 1903), edited by Shigeno Yasutsugu (, 1827–1910), founder of the Shigaku zasshi. The Daijiten ( "Great Character Dictionary", Kodansha, 1917), edited by Sakaeda Takei , went through numerous reprints.
The best available KanâÂÂWa dictionary is unquestionably Morohashi Tetsuji ()'s 13-volume Dai Kan-Wa Jiten ( "Great/Comprehensive KanjiâÂÂJapanese Dictionary", Taishukan, 1956âÂÂ60), which contains over 50,000 characters and 530,000 compounds. It was condensed into the 4-volume Kà  Kan-Wa Jiten ( "Broad KanjiâÂÂJapanese Dictionary", Taishukan, 1982), edited by Morohashi, Kamata Tadashi (), and Yoneyama Toratarà  (), which enters 20,000 characters and 120,000 compounds.
The following major KanâÂÂWa dictionaries are presented in the chronological order of their first editions. Note that the numbers of character headwords include variants.
Kan-Ei jiten ( "KanjiâÂÂEnglish dictionary") refers to a character dictionary designed for English-speaking students of Japanese. An early example of, if not the prototype for, this type of dictionary is Arthur Rose-Innes' 1900 publication 3000 Chinese-Japanese Characters in Their Printed and Written Forms, issued in Yokohama. Reprinted in 1913, a revised and enlarged edition appeared in 1915 and that volume was reprinted by United States Government Printing Office in 1943. This work evidently expanded for the second edition of Rose-Innes' Beginners' Dictionary of Chinese-Japanese Characters with Common Abbreviations, Variants and Numerous Compounds appeared in 1927 and contained 5,000 characters. Far from being a hastily compiled wartime production, Rose-Innes' Beginners' Dictionary was an established work when reprinted during World War IIâÂÂnew editions having appeared in 1927, 1936, and 1942. Reprints of various editions were made in 1943, 1945, and 1950. A third edition appeared in 1953 and a fourth in 1959. Currently, an edition is kept in print by Dover Publications. However, the Beginner's Dictionary of Chinese-Japanese Characters (Harvard University Press, 1942, Dover reprint, 1977), edited by Arthur Rose-Innes is not the only one reprinted by Dover for it also reprinted the 1959 edition. A "new eighth edition" of the Beginner's Dictionary of Chinese-Japanese Characters appeared in Tokyo (the publisher was Meiseisha) in 1984. However, it has the same pagination of the 1959 edition, so, it may merely be a reprint. Another early English character dictionary is = 6000 Chinese Characters with Japanese Pronunciation and Japanese and English Renderings by J. Ira Jones and H.V.S. Peeke published in 1915 in Tokyo. The fourth edition of this work appeared in 1936.
There are currently four major KanâÂÂEi dictionaries.
It is noteworthy that all four of these EiâÂÂWa dictionaries attempted to improve upon the traditional radical system, which can be problematical for users, but none of their improvements has been widely accepted.
Since Japanese bilingual dictionaries, which are available for most major world languages, are too numerous to be discussed here, the two cases in point are Ei-Wa jiten () "EnglishâÂÂJapanese dictionaries" and Wa-Ei jiten () "JapaneseâÂÂEnglish dictionaries".
First, the history of EnglishâÂÂJapanese dictionaries began at the end of the Edo period. The English missionary Walter H. Medhurst, who never traveled to Japan, compiled the first bilingual wordbook An English and Japanese, and Japanese and English Vocabulary (Batavia, 1830). The Dutch translator Hori Tatsunosuke (), who interpreted for Commodore Perry, compiled the first true EnglishâÂÂJapanese dictionary: A Pocket Dictionary of the English and Japanese Language (, Yosho-Shirabedokoro, 1862). It was based upon English-Dutch and Dutch-Japanese bilingual dictionaries, and contained about 35,000 headwords.
EnglishâÂÂJapanese dictionary publishing flourished during the Taishà  period. Kanda Naibu () used the Century Dictionary as the basis for his Mohan [Model] EnglishâÂÂJapanese Dictionary (, Sanseido, 1911). Saito's Idiomological [sic] EnglishâÂÂJapanese Dictionary (, à Âbunsha, 1915) was edited by Saità  Hidesaburà  ().Jà «kichi Inouye (), a graduate of London University, edited Inouye's EnglishâÂÂJapanese Dictionary (, Shiseidà Â, 1921). Kenkyusha's New EnglishâÂÂJapanese Dictionary on Bilingual Principles (, 1927) was edited by Okakura Yoshisaburà  ().
In the present day, four major EnglishâÂÂJapanese dictionaries are available.
Second, the history of JapaneseâÂÂEnglish dictionaries began towards the end of the Edo period. The American missionary James Curtis Hepburn edited A Japanese and English Dictionary with an English and Japanese Index (, Shanghai, American Presbyterian Press, 1867), with 20,722 Japanese-English and 10,030 English-Japanese words, on 702 pages. Although designed to be used by missionaries in Japan, this first JapaneseâÂÂEnglish dictionary was so popular among the Japanese that nine editions were published by 1910.
The history of EnglishâÂÂJapanese dictionaries began with the arrival of , in order to better facilitate sakoku policy in the future due to the Nagasaki Harbour Incident. The Rangaku interpreter, (), compiled the first Japanese English dictionary, purported to contain 6000 words in 1814 with the help of Dutch scholars in Japan titled "Angeria Gorintaisei" ().
An Unabridged JapaneseâÂÂEnglish Dictionary, with copious illustrations (, Sanseido, 1896), edited by Frank Brinkley, Nanjà  Bunyà « () and Iwasaki Yukichika (), adapted and expanded Hepburn's dictionary into 1687 pages. It was primarily intended for English-speaking learners of Japanese. Jà «kichi Inouye () also edited Inouye's JapaneseâÂÂEnglish Dictionary (, Sanseido, 1909), which was the first dictionary intended for Japanese learners of English. Takenobu Yoshitarà  () edited the authoritative Takenobu's JapaneseâÂÂEnglish Dictionary (, Kenkyusha, 1918), which had more coverage and better usage examples than any contemporary dictionaries. It was subsequently revised as Kenkyusha's New Japanese-English Dictionary (2nd ed. 1931) in order to compete with A Standard JapaneseâÂÂEnglish Dictionary (, Taishukwan, 1924), edited by Takehara Tsuneta (), with 57,000 headwords and 300,000 examples; and Saità Â's JapaneseâÂÂEnglish Dictionary (, Nichi-Eisha, 1928), also edited by Saito Hidesaburo, with 50,000 headwords and 120,000 examples. Kenkyusha's mainstay dictionary is now in its fifth edition, with little contest.
Senmon jiten () means "specialized dictionary" and senmon-go jiten () means "jargon dictionary; technical dictionary". Since specialized Japanese dictionaries are too diverse and numerous to be covered here, four exemplary types are reviewed: dictionaries of old words, current words, loanwords, and thesauri. (See the bibliographies listed under "External links" below for more complete listings of specialized dictionaries.)
Kogo jiten () means "dictionary of Classical Japanese." Pre-modern or Classical Japanese can vary considerably from the modern language, and kogo dictionaries are essential for anyone reading historical texts.
Ryà «kà Âgo jiten () is a specialized wordbook of catchphrases and buzzwords. Japan, like most other countries, continually creates new and ephemeral terms. Three publishers put out annual paperback dictionaries that cover the latest native coinages and foreign borrowings.
Gairaigo jiten () means "loanword dictionary". Beginning with Chinese borrowings, the Japanese language has imported many foreign loanwords and abbreviations. Below is a list of some renowned gairaigo dictionaries.
Ruigo jiten () means "thesaurus," synonymous with Japanese ruigigo jiten () and the English loanword shisà Ârasu ().
Denshi jisho () refers either generally to "dictionary software" (on CD-ROM, hard drive, onrain jisho "online dictionary", etc.) or specifically to "a dedicated PDA-type dictionary" also known as a denshi jiten ().
The specific meaning of the "electronic Japanese dictionary" as "a handheld device" became popular in the early 1980s. Modern electronic dictionaries resemble a PDA or small clamshell computer. Different manufacturers and models offer various user features, input methods, and licensed content ranging from modern Japanese, classical Japanese, kanji, kotowaza, English (monolingual and bilingual), medical terminology, business terminology, and other specialized dictionaries; student models also have textbooks, exam prep content, and other study materials and multimedia integrated in-device.
The general denshi jisho meaning of "dictionary database software" has evolved from early floppies that Japanese users copied onto their local computers to web-based dictionaries accessible by users through the Internet. Japanese dictionary software is available in either freeware or commercial versions, online and offline.
Many online dictionaries of Japanese are based upon Jim Breen's voluntary EDICT (JapaneseâÂÂEnglish Dictionary) Project, which consists of the 170,000 entry-strong core JMdict (XML) and EDICT (text) files (under Creative Commons license), and associated files such as KANJIDIC for kanji. Eijirà Â, another major online database, is targeted primarily at native Japanese speakers, and as such lacks some of the features to make it more accessible to non-native speakers. Here are some major non-commercial online reference sites.
Commercial Japanese dictionary publishers (Sanseido, Shogakukan, Kenkyusha, Obunsha etc.) also sell CD-ROM versions of their print dictionaries, license dictionary content for electronic dictionaries, and host dictionary content for commercial apps, free dictionary aggregator sites (such as Goo Dictionary and Kotobank), and subscription services (such as Seiko's GIGANTES Cloud Dictionary and Kenkyusha Online Dictionary).
From these high-tech online reference works, the path of Japanese lexicography extends back to early Chinese character dictionaries compiled by Heian Buddhist priests.