Jain literature () refers to the literature of the Jain religion. It is a vast and ancient literary tradition, which was initially transmitted orally. The oldest surviving material is contained in the canonical Jain Agamas, which are written in Ardhamagadhi, a Prakrit (Middle-Indo Aryan) language. Various commentaries were written on these canonical texts by later Jain monks. Later works were also written in other languages, like Sanskrit and Maharashtri Prakrit.
Jain literature is primarily divided between the canons of the Digambara and à ÂvÃÂtÃÂmbara orders. These two main sects of Jainism do not always agree on which texts should be considered authoritative.
More recent Jain literature has also been written in other languages, like Marathi, Tamil, Rajasthani, Dhundari, Marwari, Hindi, Gujarati, Kannada, Malayalam and more recently in English.
According to Jain tradition, the teachings that form the basis of their scriptures are eternal. It's believed that in each universal time cycle, twenty-four tërthaá¹ karas reveal these truths. The first tërthaá¹ kara of the current cycle, á¹Âá¹£abhanÃÂtha, is considered the original source of the teachings in this era, millions of years ago.
Jains believe the tërthaá¹ karas deliver their teachings in a divine preaching hall called the samavasaraá¹Âa, which are heard simultaneously by gods, ascetics, and laypersons. This divine discourse itself is known as à ÂrutajñÃÂna ("heard knowledge"). Crucially, this initial form is not a written text but an oral transmission.
The tradition holds that the chief disciples (Gaá¹Âadharas) of a tërthaá¹ kara possess the unique ability to perfectly understand and recall this divine discourse. They are credited with converting the à ÂrutajñÃÂna into structured scriptures (suttas), initially comprising the fourteen Pà «rvas (ancient or prior texts) and the eleven Aá¹ gas ("limbs"). The complete structure is often referred to as the "twelve-limbed basket" (duvala samgagani pidaga), as the twelfth Aá¹ ga contained the Pà «rvas.
For many centuries, these foundational scriptures were meticulously transmitted orally from teacher (guru) to disciple (shishya) through rigorous memorization and chanting. This emphasis on oral transmission was a defining characteristic of the early literary tradition.
While some authors date the composition of the Jain Agamas starting from the 6th century BCE, some western scholars, such as Ian Whicher and David Carpenter, argue that the earliest portions of Jain canonical works were composed around the 4th or 3rd century BCE. According to Johannes Bronkhorst it is extremely difficult to determine the age of the Jain Agamas, however:<blockquote>Mainly on linguistic grounds, it has been argued that the ÃÂcÃÂrÃÂá¹ ga Sà «tra, the Sà «traká¹ÂtÃÂá¹ ga Sà «tra, and the UttarÃÂdhyayana Sà «tra are among the oldest texts in the canon.</blockquote>Elsewhere, Bronkhorst states that the Sà «traká¹ÂtÃÂá¹ ga "dates from the 2nd century BCE at the very earliest," based on how it references the Buddhist theory of momentariness, which is a later scholastic development.
The Jaina congregation gradually split into the two sects. While à ÂvetÃÂmbaras maintain that the schism happened in the 1st century CE, Digambaras hold that it happened in 2nd century BCE. à ÂvetÃÂmbaras hold that the theory of Jain monks migrating from North to South is a fabricated account. Some scholars specifically state that the said lore was developed after 600 CE and is inauthentic.
à ÂvetÃÂmbaras convened the First Council at Pataliputra (modern Patna) around 300 BCE (traditional dating varies). During this council, the monks pooled their collective memory to compile the eleven Aá¹ gas. However, the twelfth Aá¹ ga, the Dá¹Âá¹£á¹ÂivÃÂda, which contained the fourteen Pà «rvas, was found to be incomplete or lost, as BhadrabÃÂhu, the only master who knew it fully, was absent. While Sthulabhadra learned 10 of the 14 purvas from BhadrabÃÂhu when the latter was in Nepal, the full transmission was broken.
Further efforts to consolidate the texts occurred, possibly including a council in the Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves under King Kharavela in the 2nd century BCE.
The most definitive step for the à ÂvetÃÂmbara tradition was the Council of Vallabhi (in Gujarat) held around 454 or 466 CE, presided over by Devardhigaá¹Âi Ká¹£amÃÂà Âramaá¹Âa. Faced with the ongoing weakening of memory, the council made the historic decision to commit the entire remembered canon to writing in manuscript form.
The à ÂvetÃÂmbara sect considers this written canon, based on the Vallabhi council texts, to be the authentic Agamas, derived from the original oral tradition passed down from Mahavira, even while acknowledging that the twelfth Aá¹ ga and parts of the Pà «rvas are missing.
The Digambara tradition holds a fundamentally different view. They believe that due to the famine and the passage of time, the original Aá¹ gas and Pà «rvas were completely lost by around the 2nd century CE. They state that ÃÂchÃÂrya Bhutabali (1st century CE) was the last ascetic with even partial knowledge of the original canon. They maintain that ÃÂchÃÂrya Pushpadanta and Bhutabali wrote the á¹¢aá¹Âkhaá¹ á¸ÂÃÂgama (Six Part Scripture) under guidance of Dharasena, which is held to be one of the oldest Digambara texts (2nd to 3rd century CE). Around the same time, ÃÂchÃÂrya Gunadhar wrote Kasayapahuda (Treatise on the Passions).
Consequently, Digambaras reject the scriptures compiled by the à ÂvetÃÂmbaras at Pataliputra and Vallabhi, viewing them as incomplete and corrupted. This disagreement over the authenticity and survival of the Agamas is a central reason for the historical schism between the two major sects. Lacking the original Agamas, the Digambara tradition instead came to hold authoritative a set of later texts, believed to encapsulate the essence of the lost teachings.
The canons (SiddhÃÂntha) of the à ÂvÃÂtÃÂmbaras are generally composed of the following texts:
To reach the number 45, Mà «rtipà «jak à ÂvÃÂtÃÂmbara canons contain a "Miscellaneous" collection of supplementary texts, called the Paiá¹Âá¹Âaya suttas (Sanskrit: Prakërnaka sà «tras, "Miscellaneous"). This section varies in number depending on the individual sub-sect (from 10 texts to over 20). They also often included extra works (often of disputed authorship) named "supernumerary Prakërá¹Âakas". The Paiá¹Âá¹Âaya texts are generally not considered to have the same kind of authority as the other works in the canon. Most of these works are in Jaina MÃÂhÃÂrÃÂá¹£á¹Ârë Prakrit, unlike the other à ÂvetÃÂmbara scriptures which tend to be in ArdhamÃÂgadhë. They are therefore most likely later works than the Aá¹ gas and UpÃÂá¹ gas.
Mà «rtipà «jak Jain canons will generally accept 10 Paiá¹Âá¹Âayas as canonical, but there is widespread disagreement on which 10 scriptures are given canonical status. The most widely accepted list of ten scriptures are the following:
From the 15th century onwards, various à ÂvetÃÂmbara subsects began to disagree on the composition of the canon. Mà «rtipà «jaks ("idol-worshippers") accept 45 texts, while the SthÃÂnakavÃÂsins and TerÃÂpanthins only accept 32.
The Digambara canon of scriptures includes these two main texts, three commentaries on the main texts, and four (later) Anuyogas (expositions), consisting of more than 20 texts.
The great commentator Virasena wrote two commentary texts on the á¹¢aá¹Âkhaá¹ á¸ÂÃÂgama, the DhavalâÂÂtika on the first five volumes and MahaâÂÂdhavalâÂÂtika on the sixth volume of the á¹¢aá¹Âkhaá¹ á¸ÂÃÂgama, around 780 CE. Virasena and his disciple, Jinasena, also wrote a commentary on the Kaà ÂÃÂyapÃÂhuda, known as JayaâÂÂdhavalaâÂÂtika.
There is no agreement on the canonical Anuyogas ("Expositions"). The Anuyogas were written between the 2nd and the 11th centuries <dfn>CE</dfn>, either in Jaina à Âaurasenë Prakrit or in <dfn>Sanskrit</dfn>.
The expositions (Anuyogas) are divided into four literary categories:
There are various later Jain works that are considered post-canonical, that is to say, they were written after the closure of the Jain canons, though the different canons were closed at different historical eras, and so this category is ambiguous.
Thus, UmasvÃÂti's (c. between 2nd-century and 5th-century CE) Tattvarthasà «tra ("On the Nature of Reality") is included in the Digambara canon, but not in the à ÂvÃÂtÃÂmbara canons (though they do consider the work authoritative). Indeed, the Tattvarthasà «tra is considered the authoritative Jain philosophy text by all traditions of Jainism. It has the same importance in Jainism as Vedanta Sà «tras and Yogasà «tras have in Hinduism.
Other non-canonical works include various texts attributed to Bhadrabahu () which are called the Niryuktis and Samhitas.
According to Winternitz, after the 8th century or so, Svetambara Jain writers, who had previously worked in Prakrit, began to use Sanskrit. The Digambaras also adopted Sanskrit somewhat earlier. The earliest Jain works in Sanskrit include the writings of SiddhasÃÂna DivÃÂkara (), who wrote the Sanmatitarka ('The Logic of the True Doctrine') is the first major Jain work on logic written in Sanskrit.
Other later works and writers include:
Jainendra VyÃÂkaraá¹Âa of Acharya Pujyapada and à ÂÃÂkaá¹ÂÃÂyana-vyÃÂkaraá¹Âa of à ÂÃÂkaá¹ÂÃÂyana (also called PÃÂlyakërti) are both works on grammar written in .
Pañcagranthi by ÃÂcÃÂrya BuddhisÃÂgarasà «ri (10th century) in poetic form, complemented with auto-commentary. Siddha-Hema-à ÂabdÃÂnuà ÂÃÂsana by Acharya Hemachandra () is considered by F. Kielhorn as the best grammar work of the Indian middle ages. Hemacandra's book Kumarapalacaritra is also noteworthy. Malayagiri, a contemporary to Hemachandra, also authored a à ÂabdÃÂnuà ÂÃÂsana, accompanied with an auto-commentary.
Tamil grammar is extensively described in the oldest available grammar book for Tamil, the TolkÃÂppiyam (dated between 300 BCE and 300 CE) whose author was a Jain. S. Vaiyapuri Pillai suggests that Tolkappiyar was a Jain scholar well-versed in the Aintiram grammatical system and posits a later date, placing him in southern Kerala around the 5th century CE. Notably, Tolkappiyam incorporates several Sanskrit and Prakrit loanwords, reflecting its historical and linguistic context.
Another grammatical text Naá¹Âá¹Âà «l (Tamil: à ®¨à ®©à ¯Âà ®©à ¯Âà ®²à ¯Â) is a work on Tamil grammar written by a Jain ascetic Pavananthi Munivar around 13th century CE. It is the most significant work on Tamil grammar after TolkÃÂppiyam.
PrÃÂká¹Âta-Laká¹£aá¹Âa (The characteristic of Prakrit) is one of the earliest extant specialised grammar of Prakrit. A. F. Rudolf Hoernle opines that the grammar was written by a Jaina author.
Jain acharya Hemchandra also contributed to grammar. He wrote Siddha-Hema-à Âabdanuà ÂÃÂà Âana, which includes six languages: Sanskrit, the "standard" Prakrit (virtually MahÃÂrÃÂá¹£á¹Ârë PrÃÂkrit), à Âaurasenë, MÃÂgadhë, Paià ÂÃÂcë, the otherwise-unattested Cà «likÃÂpaià ÂÃÂcë and Apabhraá¹Âà Âa (virtually Gurjar Apabhraá¹Âà Âa, prevalent in the area of Gujarat and Rajasthan at that time and the precursor of Gujarati language). He gave a detailed grammar of Apabhraá¹Âà Âa and also illustrated it with the folk literature of the time for better understanding. It is the only known Apabhraá¹Âà Âa grammar. He wrote the grammar in the form of rules, with eight adhyayas (chapters) and its auto-commentaries, namely "TattvaprakÃÂà ÂikàBá¹Âhadvá¹Âtti" with "à ÂabdamahÃÂrá¹Âava NyÃÂsa" in one year. Jayasimha Siddharaja had installed the grammar work in Patan's (historically Aá¹ÂahilavÃÂá¸Âa) state library. Many copies were made of it, and many schemes were announced for the study of the grammar. Scholars like KÃÂkala KÃÂyastha were invited to teach it. Moreover, an annual public examination was organized on the day of JñÃÂna-pañcamë. Kielhorn regards this as best grammar of Indian middle ages.
The German scholar Georg Buhler wrote, "In grammar, in astronomy as well as in all branches of belles letters the achievements of the Jains have been so great that even their opponents have taken notice of them and that some of their work are of importance for European science even today. In the south where they have worked among the Dravidian peoples, they have also promoted the development of these languages. The Kanarese, Tamil, Telugu literary languages rest on the foundations erected by the Jain monks."
Jaina narrative literature mainly contains stories about sixty-three prominent figures known as Salakapurusa, and people who were related to them. Some of the important works are Harivamshapurana of Jinasena (), Vikramarjuna-Vijaya (also known as Pampa-Bharata) of Kannada poet named Adi Pampa (), Pandavapurana of Shubhachandra ().
Jain literature covered multiple topics of mathematics around 150 CE including the theory of numbers, arithmetical operations, geometry, operations with fractions, simple equations, cubic equations, bi-quadric equations, permutations, combinations and logarithms.
The spoken scriptural language is believed to be Magadhi Prakrit by à ÂvetÃÂmbara Jains, and a form of divine sound or sonic resonance by Digambaras. The Jain Agamas and their commentaries were composed mainly in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit as well as in Maharashtri Prakrit.
Jains literature exists mainly in Jain Prakrit, Sanskrit, Marathi, Tamil, Rajasthani, Dhundari, Marwari, Hindi, Gujarati, Kannada, Malayalam, Telugu and more recently in English.
Jains have contributed to India's classical and popular literature. For example, almost all early Kannada literature and many Tamil works were written by Jains. Some of the oldest known books in Hindi and Gujarati were written by Jain scholars.
The first autobiography in the ancestor of Hindi, Braj Bhasha, is called ArdhakathÃÂnaka and was written by a Jain, Banarasidasa, an ardent follower of Acarya Kundakunda who lived in Agra. Many Tamil classics are written by Jains or with Jain beliefs and values as the core subject. Practically all the known texts in the Apabhramsha language are Jain works.
The oldest Jain literature is in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit and the Jain Prakrit (the Jain Agamas, Agama-Tulya, the Siddhanta texts, etc.). Many classical texts are in Sanskrit (Tattvartha Sutra, Puranas, Kosh, Sravakacara, mathematics, Nighantus etc.). "Abhidhana Rajendra Kosha" written by Acharya Rajendrasuri, is only one available Jain encyclodaedic dictionary to understand the technical Jain terms in Ardhamagadhi Prakrit and other languages, with specific reference to Jain literature.
Jain literature was written in Apabhraá¹Âà Âa (Kahas, rasas, and grammars), Standard Hindi (Chhahadhala, Moksh Marg Prakashak, and others), Tamil (NÃÂlaá¹ÂiyÃÂr, Civaka Cintamani, Valayapathi, and others), and Kannada (Vaddaradhane and various other texts). Jain versions of the Ramayana and Mahabharata are found in Sanskrit, the Prakrits, Apabhraá¹Âà Âa and Kannada.
Jain Prakrit is a term loosely used for the language of the Jain Agamas (canonical texts). The books of Jainism were written in the popular vernacular dialects (as opposed to Sanskrit), and therefore encompass a number of related dialects. Chief among these is Ardha Magadhi, which due to its extensive use has also come to be identified as the definitive form of Prakrit. Other dialects include versions of Maharashtri and Sauraseni.
The Jain literary tradition is notable for its large and ancient body of manuscripts. The act of commissioning and donating texts, known as shastra-dana (the "gift of knowledge"), has been a traditional act of religious merit for centuries. This practice, by both ascetics and the laity, led to the accumulation of large manuscript collections, many of which remain unstudied.
Jain manuscript libraries, or jñÃÂna bhaá¹Âá¸ÂÃÂras ('knowledge warehouses'), are among the oldest surviving libraries in India. They were often housed in temple basements for preservation and managed by the lay community or designated monks.
These bhandaras hold hundreds of thousands of documents, including some of the earliest-known palm-leaf manuscripts from the 11th century. Significant historical collections are located in Patan (Gujarat), Jaisalmer (Rajasthan), and Moodabidri (Karnataka), among others. These collections are a primary source for the literary, religious, and social history of the regions.
The manuscript collections, written on organic materials like palm leaf and paper, face constant threats from disintegration, moisture, and insect damage. This has led to modern conservation and digitization efforts to preserve the texts.
National and international institutions are involved in this work. For example, the Government of India has supported the establishment of a Centre for Jain Manuscriptology at Gujarat University, a facility dedicated to the conservation, digitization, and research of these manuscripts.
Parts of the Sangam literature in Tamil are attributed to Jains. Tamil Jain texts such as the Cëvaka CintÃÂmaá¹Âi and NÃÂlaá¹ÂiyÃÂr are credited to Digambara Jain authors. These texts have seen interpolations and revisions. For example, it is generally accepted now that the Jain nun Kanti inserted a 445-verse poem into Cëvaka CintÃÂmaá¹Âi in the 12th century. The Tamil Jain literature, according to Dundas, has been "lovingly studied and commented upon for centuries by Hindus as well as Jains". The themes of two of the Tamil epics, including the Silapadikkaram, have an embedded influence of Jainism. Some scholars believe that the author of the oldest extant work of literature in Tamil (3rd century BCE), TolkÃÂppiyam, was a Jain. S. Vaiyapuri Pillai suggests that Tolkappiyar was a Jain scholar well-versed in the Aintiram grammatical system and posits a later date, placing him in southern Kerala around the 5th century CE. Notably, Tolkappiyam incorporates several Sanskrit and Prakrit loanwords, reflecting its historical and linguistic context.
A number of Tamil-Brahmi inscriptions have been found in Tamil Nadu that date from the 3rd century BCE. They are regarded to be associated with Jain monks and lay devotees.
Some scholars consider the Tirukkural by Valluvar to be the work by a Jain. It emphatically supports moral vegetarianism (Chapter 26) and states that giving up animal sacrifice is worth more than a thousand offerings in fire (verse 259).
Silappatikaram, a major work in Tamil literature, was written by a Samaá¹Âa(jain), Ilango Adigal. It describes the historical events of its time and also of the then-prevailing religions, Jainism, and Shaivism. The main characters of this work, Kannagi and Kovalan, who have a divine status among Tamils, were Jains.
According to George L. Hart, the legend of the Tamil Sangams or "literary assemblies" was based on the Jain sangham at Madurai: <blockquote>There was a permanent Jaina assembly called a Sangha established about 604 CE in Maturai. It seems likely that this assembly was the model upon which tradition fabricated the cangkam legend."</blockquote>
Jainism began to decline around the 8th century, with many Tamil kings embracing Hindu religions, especially Shaivism. Still, the Chalukya, Pallava and Pandya dynasties embraced Jainism.
Jain scholars also contributed to Kannada literature. The Digambara Jain texts in Karnataka are unusual in having been written under the patronage of kings and regional aristocrats. They describe warrior violence and martial valor as equivalent to a "fully committed Jain ascetic", setting aside Jainism's absolute non-violence.
Jain manuscript libraries called bhandaras inside Jain temples are the oldest surviving in India. Jain libraries, including the à ÂvÃÂtÃÂmbara collections at Patan, Gujarat and Jaiselmer, Rajasthan, and the Digambara collections in Karnataka temples, have a large number of well-preserved manuscripts. These include Jain literature and Hindu and Buddhist texts. Almost all have been dated to about, or after, the 11th century CE. The largest and most valuable libraries are found in the Thar Desert, hidden in the underground vaults of Jain temples. These collections have witnessed insect damage, and only a small portion have been published and studied by scholars.
Bibliography of Sanskrit and Prakrit Jain texts (primary sources), from Dundas (2002):