IbÃÂá¸Âë theology refers to the study of God within the IbÃÂá¸Âë branch of Islam, and shares a path with Islamic theology. Although the school was founded in Basra, modern-day Iraq, its followers subsequently sought refuge in Oman, Yemen, Hadramawt in the southeast peninsula of Arabia, and North Africa. Though largely ignored by the mainstream of Arab and Muslim scholarship, and scarcely tapped by Orientalist research, there does exist a continuous tradition of IbÃÂá¸Âë scholarship throughout the centuries to this day.
The development of IbÃÂá¸Âë theology, also known as IbÃÂá¸Âë KalÃÂm (an approach to Islamic theology likened to scholasticism), can be traced to the works of scholars and imams of the IbÃÂá¸Âë community, whose histories, lives, and personalities form part of the greater Islamic history. IbÃÂá¸Âë theology can be understood on the basis of the works of theologians Ibn IbÃÂá¸Â, JÃÂbir bin Zayd, Abà « 'Ubaida, Rabë' b. Ḥabëb, and Abà « SufyÃÂn among others. Although IbÃÂá¸Âësm was extinguished in Basra, the foundation of the IbÃÂá¸Âë community, in the late 2nd century AH (ca. 8th century CE), the Ibadi teachers of Basra and their works continue to constitute sources of inspiration for the life and teaching of the IbÃÂá¸Âë community. For this reason, IbÃÂá¸Âë teaching is difficult to properly understand without an awareness of the life, history, and personalities of the Basra community and a knowledge of the growth of the various IbÃÂá¸Âë communities that were mainly established in southern Arabia, Oman, North Africa, and East Africa
IbÃÂá¸Âës today prefer to be known using the term Muḥakkima, and consider themselves their descendants. However, they reject the extreme tendencies of the KhawÃÂrij, differentiating themselves from insurgents and extremists. This position is expressed explicitly by the "most prominent IbÃÂá¸Âë KalÃÂm theologian" of the 2nd century AH (ca. 8th century CE), 'Abd AllÃÂh b. Yazëd al-FazÃÂrë, in the only surviving folio of his brief work K. al-FutyÃÂ.
The basic principles of IbÃÂá¸Âë theology do not differ from those of the other Islamic schools, the madhÃÂhib, but it has its own identity which, for IbÃÂá¸Âës, is the true Islamic identity. IbÃÂá¸Âës say the Qur'an is the fundamental source of Islamic faith and life. They also value the aḥÃÂdëth of the Muhammad and his companions (á¹¢aḥÃÂba), who preached and interpreted the Qur'an in the Muslim community. The IbÃÂá¸Âë approach to the theological, legal and social problems that develop in various Qur'anic verses is based on the words and traditions of Muhammad and the traditions of his companions and their students.
Following the example of their first Imam, Jabir ibn. Zayd, IbÃÂá¸Âë theologians find support for their views in a large number of companions of Muhammad, particularly ûAbdullÃÂh b. Al-'AbbÃÂs, Muhammad's cousin and an interpreter of the Qur'an. ûAbdullÃÂh b. Al-'AbbÃÂs was one of the first Muslims to undertake the interpretation (Tafsër) of the Qur'an. The raüy method of Qu'ran interpretation used by ûAbdullÃÂh b. Al-'AbbÃÂs was subsequently adopted by IbÃÂá¸Âë and Muûtazila scholars to metaphorically interpret the various Qur'anic names for God and to avoid tashbëh (anthropomorphisms).
An important contribution to the IbÃÂá¸Âës' theology came from the third Imam, Al-Rabëû b. Ḥabëb b. ûAmr al FarÃÂhëdë, who incorporated the aḥÃÂdëth (the sayings and teachings of the Prophet Muhammad) into the ÃÂthÃÂr of the IbÃÂá¸Âë community. From the beginning, learned men and spiritual leaders of the IbÃÂá¸Âë community developed a spiritual and intellectual movement which closely followed the religious, political, and social ideas of Islam, and elaborated on religious and theological teachings on all matters related to Islamic society. The IbÃÂá¸Âë movement sees itself as the guardian of Islam against the secularisation of power (the Muhakkima). As such, it developedâÂÂtogether with the Muûtazila movementâÂÂa rich theology that transformed Classical and Late Antiquity to the demands of the prophetic word.
IbÃÂá¸Âë theology embraces the fundamental principles of Islam, and purports to be based on the Qur'an, the Prophet Muhammad, and his companions (á¹¢aḥÃÂba, tÃÂbiÃ»à «n wa tÃÂbiÃ»à «n at-tÃÂbiÃ»à «n), the life and works of which were incorporated into the ÃÂthÃÂr of the IbÃÂá¸Âë community. The major theological and philosophical issues facing the community relate to God, the world, and human nature, and were negotiated in the IbÃÂá¸Âë community by its leaders and teachers. Belief in one God is the foundation of IbÃÂá¸Âësm. Faith means confession that God is absolutely one, i.e., confession of absolute monotheism (tawḥëd). IbÃÂá¸Âë theology, therefore, includes teachings about God, His creation, and humans, and discusses the essence and existence of God on one hand and, on the other, His relationship to His creation and creatures, especially his rational creature, the human being. These fundamental teachings of faith constitute the "roots" (uá¹£à «l) or the "principles" of IbÃÂá¸Âë theology, which are called uá¹£à «l (singular, aá¹£l) or ûaqÃÂüid (ûaqëda).
The IbÃÂá¸Âës, according to their narratives, were one of the first to approach the Qur'anic passages and formulate the basic theological principles of Islam. They gave great weight to the 112th sura of the Qur'an entitled "Surat al-IkhlÃÂs" or "Surat at-Tawhëd" which declares the believer's sincerity with all purity of heart for his faith in the one God, i.e., true monotheism.
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Transliteration: Bismillah ir-Rahman ir-Raheem 1 Qul huwa Allahu ahad
2 Allah hu samad
3 Lam yalid wa lam yulad
4 Wa lam yakun lahu kufuwan ahad
In the name of God, Most Gracious, Most Merciful
Say: He is Allah, the One and Only!
Allah, the Eternal, Absolute;
He begetteth not, nor is He begotten.
And there is none like unto Him.
With this surat and other Qur'anic passages, IbÃÂá¸Âë theology emphasizes that God is the only being that has no resemblance to His creatures. Nevertheless, God is the creator of the world, and He is the One Who reveals the law and the truth in the Qur'an and cares for His people. Because "He is the kingdom of the heavens and the earth, it is He Who gives life and causes death; and He is Able to do all things. He is the First (nothing is before Him) and the Last (nothing is after Him), the Highest (nothing is above Him) and the Nearest (nothing is nearer than Him). And He is the All-Knower of everything. He is Who created the heavens and the earth in six Days and then Istawà(rose over) the Throne (in a manner that suits His Majesty)" (Surat 57, 2âÂÂ4). This is a passage that describes God's greatness and omnipotence, and the IbÃÂá¸Âës interpreted it allegorically (Taüwël) to avoid anthropomorphism. The IbÃÂá¸Âës applied the same interpretation to all the Qur'anic "beautiful names" (al-asmÃÂü al-ḥusnÃÂ) that refer to the hand of God (al-yad) to express His power, and the eye (ûayn) to indicate His global supervision. The image of God sitting on His throne (istiwÃÂü ûalàal-ûarsh) was interpreted as His governance of the universe. They particularly repudiated the idea of the vision of God (ru'ya) at the eschaton.
IbÃÂá¸Âë theology emphasizes the unintelligible and impersonal nature of the divine essence, and asserts that God's being is inseparable from His essence. God's being, however, becomes concrete when it is connected to the Divine names and Divine properties that are made manifest in the moral and physical order of the world. God, therefore, has 99 beautiful names, because He, the "odd" (al-witr), loves these names. The 100th name is dhÃÂt, the essence of God, which cannot be contained in the human mind, and is therefore unknown and inconceivable. It constitutes His internal hypostasis. God, however, is made known to the world with the rest of the names that He revealed in the Qur'an and with which He communicates with His creatures. The names of God are neither identical with God, nor different from Him (hal asmÃÂü AllÃÂh hiya huwa am ghayruh). The names are not part of God, nor are they added to the divine essence, since thus God would be divided. God, however, is not portioned; He is one and indivisible. In this sense, the attributes of His essence are eternal. The names, however, that we ascribe to God are our own words and, as such, are created concepts. The attributes of God, therefore, are external characteristics created by man and ascribed to God's essence from outside, and are, therefore, not eternal.
To distinguish between the eternal God and his non-eternal or created attributes, the IbÃÂá¸Âës used Aristotelian terms that had entered into Arabic philosophy, viz., the terms jawhar (substance) and ûaraḠ(accident). The essence of God is single and eternal while His attributes are created accidents which are added to it from the outside. Similarly, the question arose whether the Qur'an was created or . The Ashûarite and Sunni teachings profess that the Qur'an is the word of God and therefore eternal and uncreated. The IbÃÂá¸Âës tend toward the Mu'tazilite position and believe that the Qur'an is the created word of God. As with the Christians, the Muslims too adopted the arguments of Greek philosophy, particularly Aristotelian logic, to support their positions. It is worth emphasising that, from as early as the 7th century, Islamic theology was familiar not only with the terms "essence" and "accident" from Aristotelian logic, but generally also with its syllogisms.
A major, related problem is God's justice (ûadl), which was widely discussed by IbÃÂá¸Âë theologians. The issue that arose surrounded God's relationship to the IbÃÂá¸Âë community and the faithful's relationship to God and their fellow men. For the IbÃÂá¸Âë community, the concepts of walÃÂya (friendship/communication) and barÃÂüa (excommunication) were of the greatest importance. Which of the faithful and members of the community are worthy of walÃÂya and which of barÃÂ'a, and why? What is the relationship between faith and unbelief (ëmÃÂn wa kufr)? Who is a muümën (believer) and who a munafiq (hypocrite) and what is kufr an-niûma (unfaithfulness or ingratitude)? Another issue discussed was the question of qadar (free will) and good deeds. The question of qadar, regarding divine decision and free will, was one of the main issues within the first IbÃÂá¸Âë community. Many debates took place between the IbÃÂá¸Âës, the Qadariya, and the Mu'atazila. Some IbÃÂá¸Âës, like al-FazÃÂrë of the 8th century, were critical of determinism.
The IbÃÂá¸Âiyya came to consider other Muslims as merely hypocrites (munÃÂfiqà «n) and neglecters of the true faith (kuffÃÂr), not as mushrikà «n, or those who worship gods other than the singular god. As such they allowed social intercourse, intermarriage, and mutual inheritance, but not religious association (walÃÂya, tawallë) with them. They mostly abstained from the armed revolt against the Umayyad government until the ÿAbbasid revolution in 127 AH, or 746 CE.
In the twenty-first century, atomic theory was adopted by Islamic schools, including the IbÃÂá¸Âë, to prove the existence of God. According to this theory, God is one, indivisible, and eternal. He is to be distinguished from every other atom in the universe, with which He has no similarity. In this sense, God is ûayn, the primordial atom, the subject of God (dhÃÂt), beside which there is no other atom, i.e., a second subject. God constitutes the identity of predicates.
Some authors of this period contribute substantially to the formulation of early Islamic thought, whose ideas are characterised by a rationalist reconciliation, understanding, and engagement of Islamic theology. Their contribution is important not only to the systematization of the IbÃÂá¸Âë madhhab but also to the renaissance and promotion of dialectics within Islamic theology that would later lead to its systematization by the several Islamic schools. It is particularly important to note that early IbÃÂá¸Âë and Mu'tazilite thought that predates the formative Islamic period (and which often remains opaque to modern researchers) utilized philosophy from the classical period and Early Antiquity, imbuing old notionsâÂÂsuch as the aforementioned ones of substance, atoms, essence, attributes, etc.âÂÂwith new meanings.
What can be understood from the ideas of the early IbÃÂá¸Âës and Mu'tazila is that their ideas helped diversify Islamic intellectual and theological discourse. They have had an important impact on the history of the Muslim world; their contribution was the codification of Islam. IbÃÂá¸Âës also created a rational discourse that promoted the study and hermeneutics of Islamic texts and scriptures. Some of the thinkers in the Muslim world came out from this movement, either inspired by or opposed to it. IbÃÂá¸Âës are still producing writings and theology in contrast to the Mu'atazila, who have been lost to Muslim history. Recent research focuses on these issues in all their dimensions from the beginnings of the IbÃÂá¸Âë community and until the 12th century.