This article is a description of the grammar of standardized Has Hlai, a Hlai language spoken on the island of Hainan, China, by the Hlai (Li) ethnic group. The parts of speech are nouns, verbs, adjectives, conjunctions, numerals, adverbs, and pronouns.
The Hlai people (or, as they are called in Chinese, the Li â é»ÂæÂÂ) are the original inhabitants of southern Hainan. A KraâÂÂDai people, they are believed to have settled there at least 2,000 to 6,000 years ago, and carry genetic markers from ancient people who reached the island between 7,000 and 27,000 years ago. The Pre-Hlai language they spoke would later evolve into Proto-Hlai, and from there into the modern Hlai languages.
In June 1956, China's government implemented research on Hainan Island of the Hlai people's language.
A 1983 report, Liyu diaocha yanjiu (é»Âè¯Âè°ÂæÂ¥ç Â究), claimed that the Hlai language is made up of five languages: Has ä¾¾é»Â, Gheis æÂÂé»Â, Hyuuen æΡé»Â, Moeifou ç¾ÂÃ¥ÂÂé»Â, and Deitou å èÂÂé»Â. For education, the Lauxhuet dialect of Has () in Ledong Baoyou Baoding () was chosen to be the Li's standardized language. It was this language from which the "Li orthography" () was developed.
In September 1984, two organizations, Central University for Nationalities and the Institute of Minorities in Chinese Academy of Social Sciences, made some revisions to the Li orthography. The Hlai language's orthography was finalized with the publishing of a textbook entitled Basic Li Course (Pinyin: Liyu Jichu Jiaocheng; Chinese: é»Âè¯Âåºç¡ÂæÂÂç¨Â).
At the end of 2019, a Hlai-language dictionary was officially posted online (http://www.tunhlai.com).
Has Hlai has 31 consonants. /ö/ is only found as a coda.
Notes:
Has Hlai has 3 tones. Each tone can take two forms, depending on whether the syllable ends in a stop ("tonic tone") or not ("level tone").
These nouns are mostly loan words. The Hlai language being both practical and concrete in nature, is not suitable for describing anything intangible.
1. Nouns usually cannot be modified by number alone; the number needs a proper classifier following the number to modify the noun.
But, nouns associated with dates (like year, month, day), are modified with numbers alone (no classifiers).
When the word "nyaen" refers to the name of a month (as May above), a number can modify "nyaen" without a classifier. However, when the word "nyaen" refers to the number of months (as below), a classifier is required to modify the word "nyaen."
2. Nouns cannot be modified by adverbs, nor can a noun be doubled (e.g., **uxaeu uxaeu, "man man"; **blongs blongs, "house house") to express the meaning of "every" as is done in Chinese. The way to present the meaning of "every" is to use the word "ranx" plus a proper classifier as below:
3. Although the Hlai language does not have declension of gender, it does have two prefixes to indicate the gender: "bais" for female and "pas" for male, e.g.
When the word "bais" exists alone, the meaning is mother; "pas" means father. "Pas" could also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
4.The Hlai language does not use suffixes or prefixes for nouns to denote plurality as in the English language. But, the Hlai language uses the word "kun" to indicate the plurality of nouns, e.g.
The word "kun" can also be used together with a number and a classifier to modify nouns, e.g.,
5. A noun can be a subject, predicate, object, e.g.
6. A noun can be an attribute, and also can be modified by attributes e.g.
7. A noun can also be an adverbial modifier, e.g.
8. A noun in relation to time can even be an adverbial modifier to modify a verb, e.g.
9. When the word "guu" is placed before a noun to indicate subordination, this combination functions as a possessive phrase, and can only be in the predicate of the sentence, e.g.
In Hlai language, verbs never change their form. The placement of an adverb or an auxiliary word after or before a verb determines the verb's tense.
The adverbial word "faets" or "fietla" can express the action in process, and is placed before a verb, e.g.,
The verbs with the word "bhaeis" expresses an action that has already happened. If "bhaeis" is placed before a verb, it is an adverbial, e.g.,
If the word "bhaeis" is placed after a verb, it acts as a complement and means "finished", e.g.,
The word "dhuas" can also denote the perfect aspect, ("(1) v.: pass through; (2) an auxiliary word that indicates that an action has already happened, and is placed after the verb; (3) an auxiliary word that expresses a comparison, and is placed after the adjective") e.g.,
The auxiliary word "kweis" or "guu" indicates that an action is in future by being placed before a verb, e.g.,
The nuance between the two words "kweis" and "guu" is that: when two verbs are used together, if the first one is the method of the second one, or the second one is the purpose of the first one, only the word "guu" can be placed before the second verb, e.g.,
If an action only lasts for a short while, the adverbial word "zuufanx" is placed after the verb, e.g.,
Hlai verbs, including action verbs, verbs for expressing mental activities, and verbs for expressing existence, change, and development, can be predicates or predicate heads in a sentence. Most of these verbs can be followed by objects or by complements, and can be modified by adverbials, nouns of time, and auxiliary words, e.g.,
Hlai verbs, except for linking verbs, can usually be made nominal by adding a prefix "uu-"; nominal verbs can be a subject, but cannot be a major part of the predicate, e.g.,
Nominal verbs still can function as a verb with an object following it; the nominal verb and the object together can function as a subject, object or nominal predicate, e.g.,
Hlai verbs are rarely doubled as they are in Chinese; only monosyllabic action verbs and verbs for expressing mental activities can be doubled. Doubled monosyllabic verbs imply that the action is casually and carelessly done, e.g.,
A verb followed by "laeis" comes to mean "to try"; if a verb is followed by an object, the word "laeis" should be placed after the object, e.g.,
Modal verbs are usually placed before a verb forming the predicate of a sentence to express 1) the ability of the one performing the action, or 2) the possibility, obligation, or need of the action, e.g.,
Modal verbs cannot be followed by noun-objects, nor can modal verbs be doubled, except in an interrogative sentence, that a positive and negative modal verb is used to ask yes or no, e.g.,
Only in answering questions, can a modal verb act alone as a predicate, except for the modal verbs "kiemx", "guulax" and the word "guu", which cannot act as a predicate, e.g.,
Modal verbs sometimes can be followed by an object, e.g.,
The antonym of the modal verb "kweis" is "ais"; the antonym of "kueng" is "hluums", and that of "gieu" is "gax", which cannot be used in the imperative mood.
Verbs of motion can act alone as a predicate, e.g.,
Also, verbs of motion can follow a main verb to express the direction of the action forming a predicate, e.g.,
Also, verbs of motion can combine together and become compound words as can be seen in the chart below:
The compound words above can be followed by objects, e.g.,
Except for the word "luueng", the words found in the first column of the chart ("dhuas", "kaen", "luei", "hluet", "tuuen", and "beuu") and the words found along the top row ("buuen", "hei", and "beuu") can exchange positions. After exchanging positions, the compound words cannot be followed by an object, and usually are used in imperative mood.
Linking verbs are placed before nouns, noun phrases or pronouns, combining two grammatical parts as a predicate, to provide information about the objects, e.g.,
The linking verbs can be omitted, e.g.,
But, when the subject or predicate is too long, or when the predicate includes numbers, the linking verbs cannot be omitted, e.g.,
Linking verbs cannot go with words that indicate the tense (like "faets" or "bhaeis" or "dhuas"), nor with directional verbs or with the complement, nor be modified by adverbials, or be doubled.
When the suffix "toengs" is added to some verbs, the compound words become reciprocal verbs, and cannot be followed by any objects, e.g.,
Some words in Hlai language are both nouns and verbs, e.g.,
In Chinese and English, the verb "wear" can apply to different actions, like wearing a necklace, wearing a hat, or wearing earrings. However, in Hlai language these different actions are distinguished by different verbs, e.g.,
In Hlai language, adjectives cannot be a subject, nor an object, but can act as a predicate, attribute, adverbial, or complement.
The adjective goes after the subject, e.g.,
The adjective goes after the noun that is modified, e.g.,
The adjective is placed before the verb, e.g.,
The adjective usually comes after the verb in a sentence, e.g.,
An adjective also can be modified by adverbs, which can be placed either before or after the adjective, e.g.,
In Hlai language, adjectives have comparative and superlative degrees.
Either "dhuas" or "bhi", denote comparative degree; the former one is a Hlai word, the latter a loan word. If the word "dhuas" is used, it should be placed after the adjective, and the adjective and "dhuas" should be placed between the two objects being compared, e.g.,
If the loan word "bhi" is used, it is placed between the two objects being compared, and the adjective is placed after the latter object, e.g.,
Either "vaeu" or "duix", denote superlative degree; the former one is a Hlai word, the latter a loan word. If either "vaeu" or "duix" is used, it should be placed before the adjective, e.g.,
According to my Hlai language consultant, Mr. Liu, "The word veau could possibly imply a derogatory, an exaggerated or overstated statement." It depends on the context.
"Zuugit", instead of indicating comparative or superlative degrees, denotes "(just) a little bit", e.g.,
Except for adjectives that describe a mental/emotional status, adjectives can be made nominal by adding the prefix "uu-". Adjectives that are nominal cannot be a predicate, but can act as a subject, an object, or an attribute, e.g.,
Adjectives for describing the forms/attributes of things, and those for describing the status of actions or emotions, can be doubled, but the adjective has to be monosyllabic. When the adjectives are doubled, the degree of the adjective increases, e.g.,
(When the Hlai people are saying farewell (bye), "dais dais fei" is the phrase they say to each other.)
Two different adjectives can be doubled like AABB, e.g.,
Two different adjectives also can be positioned in an ABAB pattern, e.g.,
Also, some monosyllabic adjectives express an increasing degree by the adding of a prefix, which combines the initial consonant of that adjective with a vowel like "i" or "u"; and the tone of the prefix is the first tone, e.g.,
Some adjectives can have a duplicated suffix tagged on to the ends, which cannot exist independently, to intensify the description, e.g.,
The word "enyx" is used to describe something small, and can either be placed before the noun or after; either way the emphasis is on the latter word, e.g.,
The word "long" is used to describe something big or large, and can either be placed before the noun or after; either way the emphasis is on the former word, e.g.,
Another way to express something big or large is to add the prefix "bais-" to nouns related to objects/things; but, if the prefix "bais-" is added to nouns related to mankind/persons, it becomes an indicator of gender, e.g.,
Nouns that have the prefix "bais-" added on to them can be modified by the word "long" to increase the degree, e.g.,
If the speaker intends to increase the degree, the word "dhat" or "dhatdhat" can be added.
Numbers in Hlai language, including cardinal numbers, ordinal numbers, and numbers of approximation, usually act as subjects, predicate, or objects in a sentence. When numbers are used with classifiers, together they become a phrase that can be an attribute to modify the noun phrase.
Cardinal numbers by themselves usually cannot modify nouns, but need to be placed before a classifier to modify the noun that goes after the classifier, e.g.,
However, in relation to dates (like year, month, day), numbers can modify these types of nouns without classifiers.
Cardinal numbers cannot be doubled, except for with "nguen" and "vaens"; when their pattern is AABB, and the resulting phrase means a number of great amount, e.g.,
Sometimes, the words "nguen" and "vaens" combine with "jieng" or "zuu" to form an ABAC phrase to modify a noun, synonymous in meaning to the AABB pattern, e.g.,
There are four words ("zuu", "ceuus/zeuus", and "lax") that can represent the place value of "one", but each word has its own usage.
First, when Hlai people count, they will say, "ceuus/zeuus, hlaus, fus, causâ¦(1, 2, 3, 4â¦)", they won't use "zuu" or "lax" for one.
The word "zuu" needs to go with a classifier to modify a noun.
The digit 1, when it is either in the 100's, 1,000's, 10,000's, 100,000's.... place of a number, the word "zuu" should be used for 1, e.g.,
The digit 1, when it is either in the 10's or 1's place of a number, the word "ceuus/zeuus" should be used for 1, e.g.,
However, if the number is used with a classifier, then the word "zuu" should be used, e.g.,
The word "lax" cannot be used with a classifier. The word "lax" only can be used in the first digit when the number is bigger than ten. However, if the number is multiple of 10 like 100, 1000, 10000...etc., the word "zuu" should be used, instead of "lax". e.g.,
There are two words ("fuet" and "bun") that are used for the place value of "ten," but each word has its usage.
First, "fuet" is used for the number ten when counting.
"Bun" does not need to go with a classifier to modify a noun. However, if the word "bun" does go with a classifier to modify a noun, the only two classifiers that can be used are "hom" and "lang"; but when "lang" is used with people, "bun" cannot be used.
"Fuet" needs to go with a classifier to modify a noun, e.g.,
However, "fuet" can be placed in front of nouns, which are also classifiers, e.g.,
In Hlai language, there is no word for the number "zero"; some areas adopted the loan word "lengs" (é¶ï¼Âzero), e.g.,
However, the number "zero" can be represented by the conjunction "uengx" or "loms", e.g.,
In Hlai language, there are two rules to construct numbers:
(1) when any single digit from 1 to 9 is placed after "fuet", "ghwaen", "nguen", or "vaens", the relation between the digit and the word is addition, e.g.,
(2) when any single digit from 1 to 9 is placed before "fuet", "ghwaen", "nguen", or "vaens", the relation between the digit and the word is multiplication, e.g.,
In Hlai language, the word "ghwous" (头ï¼Âhead) or "ceuus" (ä¸Âï¼Âone) means "first", and the word "cuty" (å°¾ï¼Âtail) means "last"; for all numbers in between first and last, the word "tom" (ä¸Âé´ï¼Âmiddle) is used.
When one's gender is needed, the word "pasmaen" (ç·人ï¼Âman) or "baiskaux" (女人ï¼Âwoman) can be added, e.g.,
Usually "ghwous" indicates the oldest male; "long" the oldest female, like "kauuslong" (大å§Â, oldest sister), "zoulong" (大å«Âï¼Âwife of oldest brother).
Moreover, the prefix "pas-" (ç·æ§ï¼Âman) or "bais-" (女æ§ï¼Âwoman) can be added to the words "tom" and "cuty", to indicate gender, e.g.,
When ordinal numbers apply to things, usually the phrase is constructed by "ghwous" + "zuu" + a proper classifier to represent the first one, e.g.,
To present the last one, usually the phrase is constructed with the words "baiscuty" + "zuu" + a proper classifier, e.g.,
To present the middle one(s), usually the phrase is constructed with the words "baistom" + "zuu" + a proper classifier, e.g.,
Usually, any accuracy in communication is done with loan words from Chinese, e.g.,
In Hlai culture, people use a way similar to the Chinese Zodiac to count years, and even days, e.g.,
For counting months, in Hlai culture, there are two kinds of calendar: one is following the Han's solar calendar, e.g.,
The other is following the Han's lunar calendar, e.g.,
In Hlai language, one way to represent approximate numbers is to place two or three sequential numbers together, e.g.,
Usually, the numbers one and two are not put together.
Another way to represent approximate numbers is to use the word "dzaengsloepp" (大约/大æ¦Âï¼Âprobably), e.g.,
The word "dzaengsloepp" also can be shortened to "loepp", e.g.,
Another way to represent approximate numbers is to use the word "dza" (ä½Âï¼Âa surplus/more than), e.g.,
The word "dza" can also be used with "loepp" to represent approximate numbers. The construction is "loepp" + zaux + number + "dza", e.g.,
The word "zaux" in this construction can be omitted, e.g.,
There are some synonyms, like "zuugit", "zuugitgit", "zuugitlaei", that can be used to represent approximate numbers. These words indicate the uncertainty of a small amount, e.g.,
The word "zuutom" (ä¸Âé¨åÂÂï¼Âa part/some) represents the uncertainty of a given amount, e.g.,
Sometimes, the word "zuutom" means "half", e.g.,
Another word to represent the uncertainty of a given amount is "gei" (å , è¥干, several), which implies the amount is less than ten, e.g.,
The word "hloei" (å¤Â, many/much) can represent the uncertainty of a great amount; if the amount is even greater, this word, "hloei" is repeated, "hloeihloei", e.g.,
When a certain amount is requested, the word "hloeiras" (å¤Âå°Âï¼Âhow many/much) can be used in an interrogative sentence, e.g.,
<ul> <li>ãÂÂhomï¼Â个ãÂÂÃ¥ÂÂãÂÂæÂÂãÂÂé¢ÂãÂÂç²ÂãÂÂæµãÂÂå ÂãÂÂ座ãÂÂçÂÂãÂÂ顶...ãÂÂ: most frequently used, and used with inanimate objects (including fruit, month, story, building, flower, money, mountain, light-stand, hat...), e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂzuenï¼Âä½ÂãÂÂ: it is only used with humans, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂlausï¼Â个ãÂÂä½ÂãÂÂ: it is only used with males whether a baby, child, boy or young man, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂhauusï¼Â个ãÂÂä½ÂãÂÂ: it is only used with females whether a baby, child, girl or young woman, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂlangï¼ÂåªãÂÂ: it can be used with humans, animate objects and spiritual beings, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂkuuengxï¼Â棵ãÂÂ: it is used with larger plants (flowers use "hom"), e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂfansï¼Â件ãÂÂ: it is used with shirts or blouses, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂhyaxï¼Âæ¡ãÂÂ件ãÂÂ: it is used with trousers/pants, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂruetï¼Âæ¡ãÂÂ: it is used with skirts, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂtosï¼Âå¥ÂãÂÂ: it is used with a suit of clothes or an outfit, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂtutï¼Âå¥ÂãÂÂ: it is used with a suit or outfit of clothes, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂdhanxï¼Âæ¡ãÂÂæ ¹ãÂÂ: it is used with linear objects, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂviensï¼ÂÃ¥ÂÂï¼Âå¼ ãÂÂ: it is used with massive or planar objects, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂrueisï¼ÂÃ¥ÂÂãÂÂå¼ ãÂÂ: it is usually used with flat surfaced planar objects, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂbanï¼Â头ãÂÂåªãÂÂ: it is used with cows or horses, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂpous/pausï¼Âå ÂãÂÂ: it is used with a relative smaller pile (pous/paus is also a verb), e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂkunï¼Âå ÂãÂÂ: it is used with a relative bigger pile, e.g.,ï¼Â
</li>
<li>ãÂÂbaepï¼ÂæÂÂãÂÂ: it is usually used with seedling (There is no wheat on the Island of Hainan/Hlai people's territory.), e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂhaxï¼ÂæÂÂãÂÂ: it is usually used with rice, e.g.,ï¼Â
</li>
<li>ãÂÂbhaengï¼Âé´ãÂÂ: it is usually used with a room or building, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂbhaengsï¼Âæ¢Â/é¢ÂãÂÂå°ÂãÂÂ: it is usually used with letters (a written communication as one sent through the mail) a bullet or a firecracker, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂbhakï¼ÂÃ¥ÂÂãÂÂ: it is usually used with flat objects, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂbheekï¼Âå¹ ãÂÂ: it is usually used with a picture or painting, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂbhuekï¼ÂæÂÂãÂÂ: it is usually used with straw, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂbhuiï¼Âæ‹ÂÂ: it is usually used with books, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂcaxï¼Â座ãÂÂ: it is usually used with mountains, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂceuusï¼ÂæÂÂãÂÂç§ÂãÂÂ: it is usually used with a pen or stick, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂcuengï¼ÂæÂÂãÂÂ: it is usually used with a needle, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂdhienï¼Âç¦or å¹ ãÂÂ: it is usually used with farmland (rectangular plots of land in a field, separated by ridges, usually for growing vegetables), also used with cloth, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂdhunï¼Âæ·ãÂÂ家ãÂÂ: it is usually used with households, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂgasï¼Âè¾ÂãÂÂæ¶ãÂÂ: it is usually used with a car or a plane, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂghoeixï¼Âè¡ÂãÂÂæÂÂãÂÂ: a row, a line, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂhaï¼Âç¼ÂãÂÂ: it is usually used with light.</li>
<li>ãÂÂhusï¼Âå¯ãÂÂ: it is usually used with playing cards, poker.</li>
<li>ãÂÂhwoensï¼Âå ÂãÂÂÃ¥ÂÂãÂÂ: it is usually used with fields or objects that can be organized in a pile, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂhluutï¼Âå±ÂãÂÂ: it means "layers" or "levels", e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂkaï¼ÂæÂÂãÂÂ: it is usually used with branches, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂkokï¼Â棵ãÂÂ: it is usually used with mushrooms, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂkoenï¼ÂåªãÂÂ: it is usually used with one object in a pair, e.g.,
(fiek: the action of carrying stuff on a shoulder becomes a classifier)</li>
<li>ãÂÂkouï¼Âå¼ ãÂÂ顶ãÂÂ: it is usually used with mesh, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂliemxï¼Âç£ãÂÂ: it is usually used with a clove or segment of fruit, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂleepï¼Âå ãÂÂ: it is usually used with thin objects like paper, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂleepsï¼Âç£ãÂÂçÂÂãÂÂå±ÂãÂÂ: it is usually used with thin objects</li>
<li>ãÂÂluuengsï¼ÂæÂÂãÂÂ: it is usually used with a saw (tool for sawing)</li>
<li>ãÂÂmouxï¼Âç§ÂãÂÂç±»ãÂÂ: it means a "kind, sort", e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂpaengï¼Â串ãÂÂ: it is usually used with fruit, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂpienxï¼ÂæÂÂãÂÂ: it is usually used with knives e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂpuensï¼ÂæÂÂãÂÂæ ¹ãÂÂ: it is usually used with tree trunks or any bar-like or rod-like objects, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂraeisï¼ÂÃ¥ÂÂãÂÂçÂÂãÂÂ: it is used with fields, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂrasï¼Â棵ï¼Âæ ªãÂÂ: it is usually used with grass or rice, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂrokï¼ÂÃ¥ÂÂãÂÂ: it is usually used with hillside fields (fields far from a water source), e.g.,
(ang: specifically, a burned up plot of land that is fertilized for future farming by the remaining ashes; an ancient farming way of Hlai people, but now forbidden by the CN government)
</li>
<li>ãÂÂruetsï¼ÂæÂÂãÂÂ: it is usually used with massive objects</li>
<li>ãÂÂtaeuï¼Âæ¹ãÂÂ群ãÂÂ: it is usually used with a batch of goods or a group of animals, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂtuuengï¼ÂæÂÂãÂÂ: it is usually used with farm tools, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂvaenï¼Â梳ãÂÂä¸ÂãÂÂ: it is usually used with comb-like, comb-shaped objects, e.g.,
or it is used for counting the number of times of pestling, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂvansï¼Âå¼ ãÂÂ页ãÂÂå¹ ãÂÂÃ¥ÂÂãÂÂ: it is usually used with paper products, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂvoeiï¼Â桶ãÂÂ: it is usually used with something that can be carried in a bucket, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂvongï¼ÂÃ¥ÂÂÃ¥ÂÂãÂÂ: it is usually used with something formed as a cluster (tropical fruit is usually in clusters, such as coconuts, betel nuts), e.g.,
</li> </ul>
<ul> <li>ãÂÂmousï¼Â亩ãÂÂ: (Chinese acre) a unit of area to measure a land or field, about 667 square meters, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂdhoï¼Âä¸ÂãÂÂ: a unit of length to measure the length of linear objects, 1 dho is about 350 centimeters, e.g.
</li>
<li>ãÂÂqieuxï¼Âå°ºãÂÂ: a unit of length to measure the length of linear objects, 1 qieux is about 35 centimeters, 10 qieux = 1 dho.
</li>
<li>ãÂÂcunsï¼Â寸ãÂÂ: a unit of length to measure the length of linear objects, about 3.5 cm, 10 cuns = 1 qieux.
</li>
<li>ãÂÂhlaenxï¼Â庹ãÂÂ: the length of two arms, about the height of a person, about 5âÂÂ6 feet.</li>
<li>ãÂÂhwuupï¼ÂæÂÂãÂÂ: the distance between the thumb and the middle finger pressed down on a surface in a straight line, about 15âÂÂ20 centimeters, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂtunxï¼ÂèÂÂãÂÂ: the length of a finger, about 6âÂÂ9 centimeters.</li>
<li>ãÂÂdhasï¼Âç³ãÂÂ: a unit of weight, e.g., fuetdhas ghei (fuet: ten, ghei: uncooked rice). 1 dhas is probably equal to 150 gins, about 75 kg.</li>
<li>ãÂÂdhaeuï¼ÂæÂÂãÂÂ: a unit of weight, e.g., zuu dhaeu ghei (zuu: one, ghei: uncooked rice). 10 dhaeu = 1 dhas; 1 dhaeu = 10 kax = 15 gins, about 7.5 kg.</li>
<li>ãÂÂkaxï¼ÂÃ¥ÂÂãÂÂ: a unit of weight, e.g., fus kax ghei (fus: three, ghei: uncooked rice). 1 kax = 1.5 gins, about 0.75 kg.</li>
<li>ãÂÂginsï¼Âæ¤ãÂÂ: a unit of weight, e.g., zuu gins hla (zuu: one, hla: fish). 1 gins = 16 luuengx; 1 gins = 0.5 kg.</li>
<li>ãÂÂluuengxï¼Â两ãÂÂ: a unit of weight, e.g., zuu luuengxnyaeus (zuu: one, nyaeus: salt). 1 gins = 16 luuengx; 1 gins = 500 g; so 1luuengx = 31.25 g</li>
<li>ãÂÂdhunï¼Âå¨ãÂÂ: a modern unit of weight, 1000 kg, e.g., fauus dhun ghoei, "a ton of iron (fauus: nine, ghoei: iron)."</li> </ul>
<ul> <li>ãÂÂkopï¼Âæ§ or æÂÂãÂÂ: the original action of holding or carrying something in both hands becomes a measurement, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂkoensï¼ÂæÂÂãÂÂ: the original action of tying, binding or bundling up becomes a measurement, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂbhiekï¼ÂæÂÂãÂÂ: it is usually used with a bundle of objects that is carried on one's shoulders, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂzeemsï¼Âæ®ãÂÂ: the original action of picking up (with all five fingers) becomes a measurement, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂjimsï¼Âæ®ãÂÂ: the original action of picking up (with the thumb and forefinger/index finger) becomes a measurement, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂfiekï¼Âæ or Ã¥ÂÂãÂÂ: the original action of carrying a pole (usually bamboo-made) on a shoulder that is used for measurements becomes a measurement for things that were carried on poles, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂgokï¼Âæ¯ãÂÂç¶ãÂÂ: a cup (or a bottle), originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂwaeuï¼Âç¢ÂãÂÂ: a bowl, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂboux/bauxï¼Âå²ÂãÂÂ: a year, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂbhaemï¼Âå´ãÂÂ: the original action of embracing something with two arms becomes a measurement, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂcomxï¼Âè¢ÂãÂÂ: usually, objects that can be carried in bags that have become classifiers, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂdingï¼ÂÃ¥ÂÂãÂÂ: a barrel (made of coconut shells), originally a noun, becomes a measurement, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂdhakï¼Âæ»´ãÂÂ: the original action is dripping; the meaning is "a drop", used as a classifier, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂdzuenï¼ÂæÂÂãÂÂ: the stalk bananas grow on, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂfasï¼ÂéµãÂÂ: as a noun it means sky, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂfiensï¼ÂæÂÂãÂÂ: as a noun it is the handle of farm tools, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂfokï¼ÂÃ¥ÂÂãÂÂ: as a noun it is a place, area, or region, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂgiepsï¼Â夹ãÂÂ: the original action is sheaving the thatch, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂguengsï¼Â篮ãÂÂæ¡ÂãÂÂ: a basket, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂguetyï¼Â串ãÂÂ: a stick for threading some objects together, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂnenyï¼Â串ãÂÂ: a bamboo stick for threading some objects together, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂnenyï¼ÂæÂÂãÂÂ: as a noun it means a little branch, but it can also be used as a classifier with a branch or flower, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂghongsï¼Âä¸ÂãÂÂ: as a noun it means a grove, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂhoepï¼ÂçÂÂãÂÂ: as a noun it means a box, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂhwangï¼ÂÃ¥ÂÂãÂÂ: as a noun it means a ring, ferrule, or band, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂhwaengï¼ÂÃ¥ÂÂãÂÂ: as a noun it means a balk, that is to be heaped up with soil into ridges, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂhwoensï¼Âä¸ÂãÂÂåºÂãÂÂ: as a noun it means something lined up forming a pattern, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂopï¼Âæ±ãÂÂ: the original action is holding a baby, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂpuuenï¼Â代ãÂÂ: as a noun it means seniority in respect to age, and as a classifier it means "generations," e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂreiï¼ÂæÂÂãÂÂ: as a noun it means sprouts, and as a classifier it is used with sprouts.</li>
<li>ãÂÂruekï¼ÂçªÂãÂÂ笼ãÂÂçÂÂãÂÂ: as a noun it means nest, cage, or box, and it can be used as a classifier, e.g.,
Sometimes, it is also used with urine, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂtaenï¼ÂåºãÂÂè¶ÂãÂÂ: as a noun it means altar (usually for worship of the demons or the ancestors), but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂtaengï¼Â桶ãÂÂ: a bucket, originally a noun, becomes a classifier, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂtiepï¼Â夹ãÂÂ: the original action is picking up food up with chopsticks, but as a noun it means chopsticks, which can be used as a classifier referring to the food amount that is taken up with a pinch of the chopsticks, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂtuckï¼Âå ãÂÂ: the original action is to wrap up; bind up; enclose; pack, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂveengï¼Âæ·ãÂÂ: as a noun it means lord or master, and as a classifier it can be used with households, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂzaemxï¼ÂæÂ¥ãÂÂ: as a noun it means step, and the verb is stepping or walking, but it can also be used as a classifier, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂzeengï¼Âç©ÂãÂÂç²ÂãÂÂ: as a noun it means kernels (husks) of rice, but it can also be a classifier to mean the husks from a stalk of rice or something with larger kernels, e.g.,
</li> </ul>
<ul> <li>ãÂÂfaeiï¼Âä¸ÂãÂÂ次ãÂÂÃ¥ÂÂãÂÂ: time, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂgaeisï¼ÂÃ¥ÂÂãÂÂ次ãÂÂéÂÂãÂÂ: time, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂguenï¼Âè¶ÂãÂÂéÂÂãÂÂ: time, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂcaetyï¼ÂéµãÂÂéÂÂãÂÂ: it is usually used by women, it means "time", e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂpienxï¼ÂéÂÂãÂÂ: time, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂcaeuï¼ÂéµãÂÂ: it is usually used by the elderly, it means "time", e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂcaensï¼Âé¡¿ãÂÂ: classifier for meal, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂkokï¼ÂèÂÂãÂÂ: feet, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂbomsï¼Âå£ãÂÂ: mouth, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂfeekï¼Âå£or å¥ãÂÂ: mouth, e.g.,
</li>
<li>ãÂÂpuiï¼ÂéµãÂÂéÂÂãÂÂ: it means "time" and is used to count sleep, e.g.,
</li> </ul>
Classifiers cannot be doubled as AA (e.g., lang lang), but can be used in an AB+AB pattern, e.g.,
Classifiers cannot modify nouns alone; classifiers and numbers must be used together to modify nouns, e.g.,
Classifiers (for modifying verbs) and numbers must be used together and be placed after the verb as a complement; in some regions, the combination (number+classifier) would be placed before the verb, e.g.,
In some occasions, the combination of numbers and classifiers exists alone, whereby they are not modifying any nouns or verbs, e.g.,
There are three kinds of pronouns: the personal pronoun, demonstrative pronoun, and interrogative pronoun.
The different usage of "hou" and "dhes":
<ol> <li>The women prefer to use "hou" when women talk to women, or women to men. They prefer to use "hou" in order to express themselves as a humble woman and to show respect to their listeners.</li> <li>When a senior member of the family (an elderly, parents, older brothers or sisters...etc.) is angry with a junior, he/she could choose to use "hou" or "dhes"; on the contrary, juniors are forbidden to use "dhes" when speaking with the seniors in conversation, or when they are angry at them.</li> <li>Among blood relatives, when men speak to women, they use "hou"; when men speak to men, either "hou" or "dhes" can be used; when juniors speak to a senior, they usually use "hou".</li> <li>Among in-laws, no matter whether men, women, seniors, or juniors, when they speak to each other, the word "hou" is preferable to express politeness.</li> <li>Between hosts and guests, no matter the gender or age, the word "hou" must be used to express politeness and respect.</li> <li>When someone asks a who question, "Asras�" If it is answered with the first personal pronoun, "hou" is preferable over "dhes", e.g., <ol> <li>If someone answers with the word "dhes", it expresses his impatient attitude. Usually, it occurs between family members' conversations, e.g., </li> <li>When a man sings to a woman to express his love to her, he will definitely use "hou"; if he uses "dhes", she would think he is not sincere, e.g., </li> </ol></li> <li>When someone speaks rudely, he uses "dhes" instead of "hou".</li> <li>In today's Hlai society, the difference between "hou" and "dhes" is not so strict. Generally, women mostly use "hou"; men usually use "dhes". The word "hou" expresses politeness and respect to the listener, and the word "dhes" is more casual.</li> </ol>
P.S. My language consultant said: the word "kun" is a simplified form of "kunaeu". Usually, in a conversation held between those of the same gender group, "kun" is used; in a conversation held between those of different gender groups, "kunaeu" would be used to show respect. Or, if a conversation were made up of those from both the older and younger generation, the younger generation would need to use "kunaeu" to show respect toward the elderly.
Personal pronouns can be both a subject and an object, e.g.,
Personal pronouns can also act as an attribute to indicate the possessive relation, e.g.,
Reflexive pronouns can be an appositive to another pronoun to emphasize the pronoun, e.g.,
The auxiliary word "guu" can be placed before a personal pronoun to indicate the possessive relation. After placing the word "guu", the pronoun cannot be a subject, an object, nor an attribute, but only a predicate, e.g.,
The word "neix" refers to someone, or something, at a close distance; the word "hauux" is farther away than the word "neix"; the word "max" is even farther. These three words also can be combined to the words "dhong" or "hi" and become compound words as below,
Other demonstrative pronouns are:
When a demonstrative pronoun acts as a subject, it is placed before the head word, e.g.,
When a demonstrative pronoun combines with a number, a classifier, and a noun to form a noun phrase, the demonstrative pronoun acts as an attribute, e.g.,
When a demonstrative pronoun acts as an attribute in a noun phrase, it can be placed either in the beginning or at the end of the noun phrase, e.g.,
If the linking verb is placed between the demonstrative pronoun and the noun, the demonstrative pronoun acts as a subject, e.g.,
The words "neix", "hauux", and "max" can be a subject, an attribute, an adverbial, and an object; the word "uughwaix" can be a subject, an attribute, and an object; the compound words "dhongneix", "dhonghauux", "hineix", and "hihauux" can be a subject, an attribute, an adverbial, and a predicate, e.g.,
There is no declension in demonstrative pronouns to indicate singular or plural. So, the demonstrative pronouns need to go with the number and classifier, or the word "zuugit" to indicate singular or plural, e.g.,
When the demonstrative pronoun acts as an attribute, it is usually placed after the head word, e.g.,
When the demonstrative pronoun is placed after the personal pronoun, or the interrogative pronoun, the demonstrative pronoun loses its meaning, and becomes an empty word that functions as an emphasis to make it sound fluent, e.g.,
The demonstrative pronoun "ranx" is only placed before the classifier, and can be doubled for emphasis, e.g.,
The demonstrative pronoun "uughwaix" can be an attribute and an object, e.g.,
The interrogative word "uuras" ("asras") can be a subject, an attribute, or an object, e.g.,
Just like personal pronouns, when the auxiliary word "guu" is placed before an interrogative pronoun, it indicates a possessive relation, and the interrogative pronoun cannot be a subject, an object, nor an attribute, but only a predicate, e.g.,
The interrogative word "meshes" cannot be a subject, only an attribute or an object, e.g.,
The interrogative word "ras" cannot be a subject, only an attribute, an adverbial or an object., e.g.,
When the word "ras" acts as an attribute, it is usually used with a number and clasiifier, and is placed before a noun, e.g.,
When the word "ras" acts as an adverb, it is usually placed after the adjective, e.g.,
The interrogative word "dhongras" usually acts as an adverbial, and is most often is placed before a verb, but sometimes it can be placed after a verb, e.g.,
The interrogative word "qiras" most often acts as an adverbial, and must be placed before the verb, e.g.,
The interrogative word "hloeiras" most often acts as an object, e.g.,
These adverbs modify verbs or adjectives, and usually are placed before the verbs or adjectives, e.g.,
When the adverb "da" modifies verbs or adjectives, and "zo", an accentuated emphatic particle, is placed at the end of the sentence, "da" means "not yet", e.g.,
When the adverb "da" is placed at the end of a sentence, then the word "da" signals a question, e.g.,
These adverbs are usually placed before the adjectives to modify them, e.g.,
But, the adverbs "dhat" and "baisias" are placed after the adjectives. These two words also can modify verbs, e.g.,
To increase the degree of something, two different adverbs can modify the same term, e.g.,
The word "dhat" can be doubled to increase the degree, e.g.,
These adverbs are usually placed before the verbs to modify them, e.g.,
These adverbs "mans" and "nyoengx" can be linked together to emphasize the voice, e.g.,
These adverbs cannot be doubled for intensity, except for the adverb "naeus", e.g.,
Adverbs for indicating timing usually modify verbs, and are placed before the verbal phrase, e.g.,
However, the adverb "kuenx" can also be placed after the verbal phrase, e.g.,
These adverbs modify verbs; the word "loms" or "uuloms" is placed before a verb, and the word "toengs" is placed after a verb, e.g.,
The verb being modified by the adverb "toengs" can be modified by other adverbs, which are placed before the verb, e.g.,
These adverbs modify verbs or adjectives, and usually are placed before the verb or adjective, e.g.,
A more unusual placement of these adverbs is at the beginning of a sentence, e.g.,
That link nouns:
That link pronouns:
That link noun phrases:
That link verb-object phrases:
These conjunctions can be added to more than two nouns, pronouns, or phrases; These conjunctions can even be placed before the first noun, pronoun, or phrase, e.g.,
These conjunctions can also function as prepositions, as can be seen in the chart below:
The word "nyuek" is used in Hlai's folk song, and can be linked with a verb, e.g.,
Some adverbs, like "loms" (Ã¥ÂÂï¼Âå´ï¼Âagain) and "hloeis" (顺便ï¼Âby the way, èÂÂ丠and), can also function as conjunctions, e.g.,
Generally, the word "cas" is a synonym of "cuus." Both can be used in indicative and interrogative sentences. But, another synonym "cuusnaus" can only be used in interrogative sentences, e.g.,
The word "dagoms" also means "not only" or "or", e.g.,
Generally, the word "danyoengx" or "dagoms" is the synonym of the word "dacaux", e.g.,
The conjunction words that express a parallel relationship are "uengx" (Ã¥ÂÂ, and), "ku" (Ã¥ÂÂ, and), and "nyuek" (Ã¥ÂÂ, and), e.g.,
The conjunctions that express a progressive relationship are "loms" (Ã¥ÂÂ, again), "hloeis"(并ä¸Â, èÂÂä¸Â, and), and similar phrases like "dacauxâ¦komsâ¦" (ä¸Âä½Â...èÂÂä¸Â...ï¼Ânot only... but also...), e.g.,
In the construction of phrases like "dacauxâ¦komsâ¦" ("not onlyâ¦but alsoâ¦"), the conjunctions "but also" ("koms", "uengx", or "toep") must be placed in the second clause, between the verb and the object.
The conjunctions that express an optional relationship are "cuus" (æÂÂ, or), "cas" (æÂÂ, or), "cuusnaus" (æÂÂ, or), "casnus" (æÂÂ, or), and "dagoms" (æÂÂ, or), e.g.,
The conjunctions that express a transitional relationship are "tom" (ä½Âæ¯, but), "oms" (å´, but), and "tus" (ä½Âæ¯, but), e.g.,
The conjunctions that express a conditional relationship are "laeis", "dalunx", e.g.,
The conjunctions that express a causal relationship are "hans" (å 为, because), "dagoms" (ä¸Âç¶, otherwise), e.g.,
The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed after a verb, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.
However, as more and more young generation Li have mingled with Han culture, they have gradually adopted Chinese grammar, and have placed the prepositional phrase before the verb, e.g.,
The word "ueks" can be placed after the preposition "dhuus", e.g.,
The prepositional phrase being constructed by the word "ueks" can also act as a subject, e.g.,
The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed after the verb, and acts as a complement.
The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed before a verb, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.
However, the prepositional phrase of "niens" can also be placed after a verb, e.g.,
The word "cuuslax" is only used in poetry as above.
Since more and more young generation Li have mingled with Han culture, sometimes they express the purpose by using the loan word "uis" or "uisliaeus".
The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed after verbs, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.
However, because of the influence of Chinese grammar, the "ku" prepositional phrase can also be placed before the verb, e.g.,
When a prepositional phrase, constructed by the preposition "dhuas," modifies an adjective as a complement, it indicates a comparison.
The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed before the verb, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.
However, the prepositional phrase using "uengx" can also be placed after the verb, e.g.,
The prepositional phrase, which is constructed by the prepositions below, usually is placed before the verb, and acts as an adverbial to modify the verb.
There are three words in the category of structural auxiliary words: "guu", "uu-", and "dhaens"
When the word "guu" is placed before a noun or a pronoun to indicate subordination, this combination functions as a possessive phrase, and can only be in the predicate of the sentence, e.g.,
However, the word "guu" can be omitted, e.g.,
The auxiliary prefix "uu-" can be added to some verbs or adjectives. After adding this prefix, the nominalized verb or adjective can be a subject, object, or an attribute, but cannot be a predicate, e.g.,
Another structural auxiliary word is "dhaens". It is usually placed after a verb or an adjective, and is followed by a complement that indicates the result or degree of the action/situation, e.g.,
The word "dhuas" is placed after a verb to indicate an action has already happened, e.g.,
Both the auxiliary words "lax" and "dheuu" are often used to indicate the relationship of acting and receiving between an agent and a patient.
The original meaning of the word "lax" is "to eat", however, the meaning changes when it acts as an auxiliary word; the word "lax" is usually placed after the person-object in double-object sentences, even when the thing-object is absent.
The original meaning of the word "dheuu" is "to take", however, the meaning changes when it acts as an auxiliary word, e.g.,
Generally, the word "lax" and "dheuu" are exchangeable.
There are several words used in the indicative mood, like "lo", "bhe", "ve/vi", "he", "zu/zo", and "rus"
This word indicates that something is in the process, or is forth coming, and it expresses the feeling of hope or surprise, e.g.,
This word indicates something has already happened, and it usually does not express the subjective feeling, e.g.,
This word indicates that the speaker is explaining something, and the speaker's tone is certain, e.g.,
This word indicates something has already happened, and it does not express the subjective feeling, and the speaker's tone is certain, e.g.,
This word indicates something is a fact or true, in which the speaker tries to persuade others, and the speaker's tone is certain, e.g.,
Sometimes the words "zo/zu" can have "ho" or "nex" added to them to put an emphasis on the mood, e.g.,
This word indicates that something is not sure, and the speaker's tone is mild and indirect, tactful, e.g.,
There are several words used in the interrogative mood, like "hos", "yos", "os", "hyos", "zuumos", "huux", "hauux", "yax", "nex/nix", "zuurasve", "bas/vixbas", and "zuuras/cuusras".
These words are used in common interrogative sentences, e.g.,
These words are used in sentences with an interrogative pronoun, e.g.,
These words are used in common interrogative sentences, e.g.,
These words are used in interrogative sentences where the speaker inquires by questioning closely, e.g.,
These words express a possibility, e.g.,
There are several words used in the imperative mood, like "as", "bas", "res", "bhislo".
This word is used to enjoin or to exhort someone to join in to do something, and the tone is soft and gentle, e.g.,
This word is used to command, to request, or to exhort someone to do something, e.g.,
This word is used by one with a discontented mood to command, to request, or to hasten someone to do something, e.g.,
Sometimes the word "bhislo" is also used to put an emphasis on the indicative mood, e.g.,
The usage of this word is similar with the word "bas", however, the tone of the word "res" is kind and warm, e.g.,
There are several words used in the exclamatory mood, like "ho", "a", "aei", "aiho", and "o". These words strongly express the speaker's feeling, e.g.,
Usually, these words are placed in the end of a sentence; however, sometimes these words act as one word sentences, e.g.,
Onomatopoeic words for expressing the feeling of surprise, exclamation, or agreement. Usually, these words are independent/separated from a sentence or clause, e.g.,
However, some onomatopoeic words can go with or within a sentence or clause, e.g.,
Onomatopoeic words for imitating human, animate, or nature soundsï¼Âe.g.,
More onomatopoeic words below:
There are five kinds of phrases: the coordinative phrases, the attribute phrases, the verb-object phrases, the complement phrases, and the subject-predicate phrases.
The method used to coordinate equivalent elements in a coordinative phrase is to use conjunctions, but another method is not to use conjunctions. The nouns and pronouns sometimes use the conjunctions, sometimes they do not.
Usually, the verbs and adjectives need conjunctions.
However, when the verbs and adjectives are doubled, there is no need for conjunctions.
The elements in the attribute phrases are not equivalent; one element is the head word, and the other element is the modifier that modifies the head word. Usually, the head word is a noun, a verb, or an adjective.
Usually, the modifier is placed after the noun head word.
The word "enyx" (å°Â, small) is the exception where the modifier is placed before the head word, e.g.,
The modifier, which is constructed with a number and classifier, must be placed before the head word.
Like Chinese, these modifiers are placed after the head word, and most of these words are loan words, e.g.,
Noun + noun (the head word)
Adjective + noun (the head word)
Verb + noun (the head word)
The modifiers that modify verbs are the adverbs, adjectives, pronouns, nouns, numbers, or verbs. Usually, the monosyllabic modifier is placed before the head word; the disyllabic/doubled adjective, the pronoun, or the number can be either placed before or after the head word, e.g.,
dais dais fei= fei dais dais
slow slow walk
"栢栢走ï¼Âwalk slowly" (This is also used to say good bye.)
<br />dzuuns dzuuns raux = raux dzuuns dzuuns
quick quick read
"快快读ï¼Âread quickly"
<br />hleny hleny rien = rien hleny hleny
good good say
"好好说ï¼Âsay (it) nicely"
<br />liloek vuek= vuek liloek
dark do
"æ¼Âé»ÂÃ¥ÂÂï¼Âdo (it in) darkness"
dhonghauux nyop = nyop dhonghauux
like that sew
"é£样ç¼Âï¼Âsew like that"
<br />dhongras vuek? = vuek dhongras?
how do
"æÂÂä¹ÂÃ¥ÂÂï¼ÂHow is it to be done?"
<br />qiras hei? = hei qiras?
When go
"ä½Âæ¶走ï¼ÂWhen (is it time to) go?"
zuu gaeis hei = hei zuu gaeis
one classifier go
"å»ä¸Âè¶Âï¼Â(make) a trip" (means to run an errand)
<br />fus faei taeix= taeix fus faei
three classifier beat
"æÂÂä¸Âä¸Âï¼Âbeat (something) three times"
<br />zuu kuuengx zuu kuuengx ghwa= ghwa zuu kuuengx zuu kuuengx
one classifier one classifier plant
"ä¸Â棵ä¸Â棵å°ç§Âï¼Âplant one by one"
<br />zuu boms zuu boms lax= lax zuu bomszuu boms
one classifier one classifier eat
"ä¸Âå£ä¸Âå£å°åÂÂï¼Âeat one (bite) at a time"
The modifiers that modify adjectives are adjectives, adverbs, or pronouns. Usually, when the modifier is an adjective or adverb, the modifier is placed before the head word, e.g.,
Only few adverbs, like "dhat" (çÂÂ, å¾Â, really, very) or "baisias" (éÂÂ常, æÂÂ, very much, most), are placed after the head word, e.g.,
Also, when the modifier is a demonstrative pronoun, interrogative pronoun or noun, the modifier is placed after the head word, e.g.,
The construction of the phrase above actually is: Adjective (the head word) + dhong/bhaen + noun, the word "dhong" (Ã¥ÂÂ, as, like) or "bhaen" (Ã¥ÂÂ, as, like) is omitted, e.g.,
The verb is the head word, and the object can be a noun, a pronoun, a number, or a verb. Usually, the verb is placed before the object, e.g.,
Some verbal adjectives can act as the head word with the noun as the object, e.g.,
The complement phrases include both a verb-complement phrase and an adjective-complement phrase.
The verb is the head word, and the complement can be a verb, an adjective, or a number with a classifier. The verb is placed before the complement.
In this case, the verb must be an intransitive verb, and the phrase can be an independent clause or a predicate.
The adjective is the head word, and the complement can be a verb, an adjective, or a number with a classifier. The complement indicates the result of the head word, so usually the auxiliary word "dhaens" is placed between the complement and the head word.
In this case, the adjective acts not as an attribute to the noun, but functions as expository to the noun. The phrase can be an independent clause or a predicate.
This kind of phrase is constructed by the subject and the predicate; usually, the subject is a noun or a pronoun, and the predicate is a verb or an adjective.
The construction of the subject-predicate phrase is the same as the attribute phrase.Usually, if there is an element, like an accent, an adverb, or a noun, that is either placed after or before the phrase, then it is a subject-predicate phrase. See the chart below:
The statements above are incomplete sentences. But, when we add some critical words, they become complete sentences to communicate a complete thought that makes sense to the listeners or readers, e.g.,
The chart below presents the grammatical elements that construct a sentence. These elements are a subject, a predicate, an object, a complement, an attribute and an adverbial phrase.
The subject is placed before the predicate; and either the nouns, pronouns, numbers, or phrases can be the subject.
The predicate is placed after the subject to provide information about the subject. Usually, verbs or adjectives are the predicate; however, nouns, pronouns, and phrases can also be the predicate.
In the examples above, the subjects are the actors who act out the actions; however, the subjects can also receive the actions, which is called passive voice. Auxiliary words like "ia" or "ghoems" can be used to denote passive voice, e.g.,
An object follows a verb. However, if the sentence is passive voice, the object can be placed before the verb phrase. Usually, a noun, pronoun or phrase can act as an object; sometimes, a number or verb can also be a subject, e.g.,
The construction is Verb + person-object + lax/dheuu + thing-object, e.g.,
The auxiliary word "lax" can be replaced by the verb "duuengx" (ç»Â, give), then the construction becomes Verb + thing-object + duuengx + person-object, and the objects generally cannot be omitted, e.g.,
Sometimes, the verb "duuengx" (ç»Â, for) can be placed both before the thing-object and the person-object, then the sentence construction becomes Verb + duuengx + thing-object + duuengx + person-object, e.g.,
When both speaker and listener are clear what the thing-object is, or the subject itself is the given thing, the thing-object can be omitted, but the auxiliary needs to be kept, e.g.,
Although some verbs in double-object sentences do not imply the giving-receiving relation, the auxiliary word "lax", which indicates that the subject is "helping" the person-object, is still needed. e.g.,
Hou reengs meuu lax.
I move you auxiliary word (help)
"æÂÂ帮你æ¬ï¼ÂI will help you (to) move."
Meuu laix na lax.
You plow him auxiliary word (help)
"你帮ä»ÂçÂÂç°ï¼ÂYou help him (to) plow."
Baisdza caep hluuekbaiskaux lax.
Mother carry daughter auxiliary word (help)
"æ¯Â亲帮女å¿æÂÂï¼ÂA mother helps her daughter carry (the stuff)."
The auxiliary word "lax" can be followed by another object, e.g.,
Taeix dhes lax tax.
Put me auxiliary word (help) rice
"帮æÂÂæÂÂé¥Âï¼ÂPlease help get me (some) rice."
Hou caty meuu lax bheuucai.
I buy you auxiliary word (help) vegetable
"æÂÂ帮你买èÂÂï¼ÂI'll help you buy (some) vegetables."
Na rien na kueng poengs meuu lax ceengcai.
He say he would water you auxiliary word (help) flower
"ä»Â说ä»Âä¼Â帮你ç»Âè±æµÂæ°´ï¼ÂHe said he would help you water the flowers."
There are three kinds of complements: sequential, directional, and quantitative complements. A complement goes after the verb or the adjective, in order to explain the sequence, degree, direction, or amount of the action. Usually, the verb, adjective, number, or phrase acts as a complement. Generally, a complement is placed after a verb, but if an object follows that verb, then the sequential complement and quantitative complement have to be placed after that object; the directional complement can either be placed after or before that object, e.g.,
Dzax ghoems taeix hlaeux bhe.
Snake by hit die accent
"èÂÂ被æÂÂæ»äºÂï¼ÂThe snake was beaten to death by (someone)."
<br />Hou bhaeis lax kuuem he.
I already eat full accent
"æÂÂå·²ç»ÂÃ¥ÂÂ饱äºÂï¼ÂI have already eaten (rice) and am full."
<br />Na lax tax kuuem he.
He eat rice full accent
"ä»ÂÃ¥ÂÂ饱é¥ÂäºÂï¼ÂHe ate and is full."
If the sequential complement is a phrase, the prepositional word "dhaens" is needed to be placed before the phrase, e.g.,
Na gwaeng dhaens tuuen nomswoms.
He pull preposition go out sweat
"ä»ÂæÂÂå°åºæ±Âï¼ÂHe pulled until he sweat."
<br />Duis ghoux dhaens ngaeix noms hauux.
Water buffalo run preposition edge/bank river that
"æ°´çÂÂè·Âå°é£河边ï¼ÂThe water buffalo ran to the bank of that river."
<br />Veengs neix baen dhaens asras ruus qieng cat.
shirt/top this new preposition whoever also want wear
"è¿Âè¡£æÂÂæ°å°è°Âé½æ³穿ï¼ÂThis shirt is so new that everyone wants to wear it."
The directional complement is constructed by a verb + a directional verb, e.g.,
a. Directional complement without an object
Most directional complements can act as a complement after alone verb, e.g.,
Na qieus buuen bhe.
He bring come accent
"ä»Âæ¿æÂ¥äºÂï¼ÂHe brought something here."
<br />Duis ghoux hei lo!
Water buffalo run go accent
"æ°´çÂÂè·Âå»äºÂï¼ÂThe water buffalo ran (away)."
<br />Aeudza buuen luueng bhe
Old man come go back accent
"èÂÂ人åÂÂæÂ¥äºÂï¼ÂThe old man came back."
<br />Uengxtoengs caep hei beuu bhe
Everyone carry go come back accent
"大家æÂÂÃ¥ÂÂå»äºÂï¼ÂEveryone carried (something) back (home)."
<br />Na ais caus. luei ba.
He is not willing to come down down accent
"ä»Âä¸Âæ¿æÂÂèµ°ä¸ÂæÂ¥å§ï¼ÂHe is not willing to come down."
<br />Na ghoux tuuen hos?
He run go out accent of question
"ä»Âè·ÂåºæÂ¥äºÂÃ¥ÂÂï¼ÂDid he run out (from there)?"
b. Directional complement with an object
These three directional verbs, "dhuas", "kaen", and "hluet", need an object to go after them, e.g.,
Tuas zuens dhuas zuu dhanx dhaeix.
Rabbit jump over one classifier stream
"å ÂÃ¥ÂÂè·³è¿Âä¸Âæ¡å°Âæ²Âï¼ÂThe rabbit jumped over a stream."
<br />Uengxtoengs caem kaen hwous max.
Everyone carry on shoulders go up mountain that
"大家æΡé£山ä¸Âï¼ÂEveryone shouldered (something) up that mountain."
<br />Diu bhaeis ghoux hluet cuengs he.
Mouse already run go into hole accent
"èÂÂé¼ å·²ç»Âè·Âè¿Âæ´Âï¼ÂThe mouse already ran into the hole."
The quantitative complement, which is constructed by either (number + verbal classifier), or (number + time classifier), usually goes after a verb, sometimes goes after an adjective, e.g.,
a. Verb + (number + verbal classifier)
Hou uengx meuu hei zuu gaeis.
I and you go one classifier
"æÂÂÃ¥ÂÂä½ å»ä¸Âè¶Âï¼ÂI and you (can) go (there)."
<br />Kai bhaeis hyoen fus dzax bhe.
Chicken already crow three classifier accent
"鸡已ç»Âå¼ä¸ÂéÂÂäºÂï¼ÂThe rooster has already crowed three times."
b. Verb + (number + time classifier)
Fa bhaeis o zuu bhoux he.
We already learn one year/classifier accent
"æÂÂ们已ç»Âå¦ä¸Âå¹´äºÂï¼ÂWe (have) already studied for one year."
<br />Na bhaeis doengs fus hwan he.
He already stay three day accent
"ä»Âå·²ç»Âä½Âä¸Â天äºÂï¼ÂHe (has) already stayed (for) three days."
<br />Na beuu blongs zaux hlaus nyaen bhe.
He go back home have two month accent
"ä»ÂÃ¥ÂÂ家æÂÂ两个æÂÂäºÂï¼ÂHe has been home for two months now."
c. Adjective + (number + classifier)
Blongs neix peek dhuas blongs hauux zuugit.
House this high/tall than house that a little bit
"è¿Âæ¿åÂÂæ¯Âé£æ¿åÂÂé«Âä¸Âç¹ï¼ÂThis house (is just) a little bit taller than that house."
<br />Waeu neix hloei fus hom.
Bowl this more three classifier
"è¿Âç¢Âå¤Âä¸Â个ï¼ÂThis bowl (has) three extra (ones)."
The attribute is to modify or to define the subject or object, in order to indicate the characteristics, amount, or possession. Usually, the attribute, which can be an adjective, a noun, a pronoun, a number, a verb, or different kinds of phrases, is placed after the head word, except when a number acts as an attribute, the number must be placed before the head word, e.g.,
aek duis
meat water buffalo
"çÂÂèÂÂï¼Âbeef"
<br />feekx hweek
skin banana
"é¦ÂèÂÂç®ï¼Âbanana peel"
<br />coem coeis
fruit litchi
"èÂÂæÂÂæÂÂï¼Âlitchi (fruit)"
<br />dzuuem kai
egg chicken
"鸡èÂÂï¼Âchicken egg"
<br />Na kueng rien tun Hlai.
He know say/speak language/word Li
"ä»Âä¼Â说é»Âè¯Âï¼ÂHe knows(how to) speak the Li's language."
<br />Neix man bheuu cai.
This is leaf tree
"è¿Âæ¯æ Âå¶ï¼ÂThis is a tree's leaf."
tau loek
pot black
"é»Âé ï¼Âblack pot"
<br />zuu fans veengs kaeu
one classifier shirt/top white
"ä¸Â件ç½ä¸Âè¡£ï¼Âone white shirt"
<br />noms neix noms ghan.
water this water cold
"è¿Âæ°´æ¯å·水ï¼ÂThis water (is) cold water."
Gha Hlai zaux caqias veengzauus bhe.
We Li people have script self accent
"å±们é»ÂæÂÂæÂÂèª己çÂÂæÂÂÃ¥ÂÂäºÂï¼ÂWe, Li people, have our own script."
<br />Hluuek na kweis hei zok Damxax.
Older sister his/her is going to go to/toward Sanya
"ä»Âå§Âå§Âè¦Âå»ä¸ÂäºÂï¼ÂHis older sister is going to go to Sanya."
Zuu zuen aeu dhuus blongs max.
One classifier man in house that
"ä¸Â个人å¨é£边æ¿åÂÂï¼ÂA man (is) in that house."
<br />Hlaus lang duis neix ghweis dhat dhat.
Two classifier water buffalo this fat very very
"è¿Â两头çÂÂèÂ¥æÂÂäºÂï¼ÂThese two water buffalos (are) very, very fat."
Dhuus max wenysnaeis fok gaux.
In/at there no place lie down
"å¨é£éÂÂ没æÂÂå°æ¹ç¡ï¼ÂAt that place, (there is) no place to sleep."
<br />Toep laty ghoux ruus zeuu loem.
Even wild boar run also shoot right
"è¿Âè·ÂçÂÂéÂÂçªä¹Âå°Âä¸Âï¼ÂHe shot even a running wild boar right on."
<br />Neix gong lax fa.
This stuff eat our
"è¿Âæ¯æÂÂ们åÂÂçÂÂä¸Â西ï¼ÂThis (is) our food ."
veengs dhuus blongs hauux
shirt/top in house that
"å¨é£æ¿åÂÂçÂÂè¡£æÂÂï¼Âthe shirt (that is) in that house"
<br />hluuekueng naeus buuen hauux
girl just come that
"é£ä½ÂÃ¥ÂÂæÂ¥çÂÂå§Âå¨Âï¼Âthat girl (who) just came"
<br />zuu lang duis lax gans kuuem
one classifier water buffalo eat grass full
"ä¸ÂåªåÂÂ饱èÂÂçÂÂæ°´çÂÂï¼Âa water buffalo (that) eats grass (until it's) full"
<br />qi meuu buuen hauux
time you come that
"ä½ æÂ¥çÂÂé£个æ¶åÂÂï¼Âthat time (when) you came"
The adverbial modifies or defines verbs or adjectives, in order to indicate the why, how, when, and where of the verb, or the degree of the adjective. Most often it is an adverb, an adjective, or a verb that acts as an adverbial; sometimes, a noun, a demonstrative pronoun, interrogative pronoun, a number, and various phrases can also be adverbials. Adverbials can either be placed before or after the verb or adjective. e.g.,
Most adverbs are placed before the verb or adjective, e.g.,
Na oms da buuen zo.
He still not come accent
"ä»Âè¿Â没æÂ¥å¢ï¼ÂHe has not come (yet)."
<br />Hwanneix fas vaeu fous hos.
Today sky mosthot accent
"ä»Â天天æ°Âå¾ÂçÂÂÃ¥ÂÂï¼ÂToday the weather (is) very hot."
<br />Qi lax tax yous rien tun!
Time eat rice don't say/speak word
"Ã¥ÂÂé¥Âæ¶å«说è¯Âï¼ÂIt is eating time, don't talk!"
<br />Zuu lang aeu neix da hlenymuuen.
One classifier man this not beautiful
"è¿Â个人ä¸Âæ¼Â亮ï¼ÂThis person (is) not beautiful."
Only fewadverbs, like "dhat", "luueng", "baisias" and "dhatdhat", are placed after the verb or adjective, e.g.,
Na buuen dhat.
He come really
"ä»ÂçÂÂçÂÂæÂ¥äºÂï¼ÂHe really came."
<br />Na vuek luueng.
He do back
"ä»ÂéÂÂæ°åÂÂï¼ÂHe (is) re-doing (it)."
<br />Gong neix hleny dhatdhat.
Stuff this good really
"è¿Âä¸Â西çÂÂ好ï¼ÂThis is really good stuff."
<br />Maeis neix dheeng baisias.
Sugarcane this sweet very
"è¿ÂçÂÂèÂÂéÂÂ常çÂÂï¼ÂThis sugarcane (is) very sweet."
Most adjectives are placed before verb or adjective head words. Only a few adjectives, like "hleny" (好, good/so), and "reek" (Ã¥ÂÂ, bad/not so), can be adverbials to modify adjective head words, e.g.,
reek coem
bad/not so sharp
"ä¸ÂéÂÂå©ï¼Ânot so sharp"
<br />Gas neix hleny coem hosï¼Â
Long knife this good/so sharp accent!
"è¿ÂæÂÂÃ¥ÂÂ好快åÂÂï¼ÂThis knife is (so) sharp!"
<br />Dais fei as, baisdzaï¼Â
Slow walk accent, old lady!
"栢走åÂÂï¼ÂèÂÂ大å¨Âï¼ÂSlow(ly) walk, (lady/old woman)."
<br />Meuu dzuuns buuen bheï¼Â
You quick come accent
"ä½ å¿«æÂ¥å§ï¼Â(You) quick(ly) come."
If an adjective is doubled, it can be placed after the verb, e.g.,
Meuu buuen dzuunsdzuuns bheï¼Â
You come quick quick accent
"ä½ å¿«å¿«æÂ¥å§ï¼Â(You) come double quick."
When verbs act as adverbials to modify the head word, the head word must be a verb, and the adverbial verbs are placed before that head word, e.g.,
Na ngais rien.
He/she cry say
"她åÂÂçÂÂ说ï¼ÂShe said (it while) crying."
<br />Meuu dzok dzueis meshes?
You steal/secretly look what
"ä½ å·çÂÂä»Âä¹Âï¼ÂWhat are you secretly looking at?"
<br />Na oep lax zuuyunx.
He like eat coconut
"ä»Âç±åÂÂ椰åÂÂï¼ÂHe likes to eat coconuts."
When nouns act as adverbials to modify the head word, the head word must be a verb, and the adverbial nouns are placed before that head word, e.g.,
Neix man cai vuek
This is tree make
"è¿Âæ¯æ¨å¶çÂÂï¼ÂThis is made of wood."
<br />Meuu ashaux hei hyos?
You tomorrow go question accent
"ä½ æÂÂ天åÂȌÂÂï¼ÂAre you going tomorrow?"
When pronouns act as adverbials to modify the head word, the head word must be a verb, and the adverbial pronouns can either be placed before or after that head word, e.g.,
Na dhongneix rien. = Na rien dhongneix.
He like this say = He say like this
"ä»Âè¿Â样说ï¼ÂHe said (it) like this."
<br />Gong neix dhongras vuek = Gong neix vuek dhongras
work this how do = work this do how
"è¿Âæ´»å¿æÂÂæ ·åÂÂï¼ÂHow (is) this work done?"
<br />Qiras dhaens = dhaens qiras
When arrive = arrive when
"ä½Âæ¶å°ï¼ÂWhen (will he) arrive?"
However, when pronouns act as adverbials to modify a head word that is an adjective, the adverbial pronouns are only placed after that head word, e.g.,
Gom neix bheeng dhonghauux.
Region this wide/vast like that/so
"è¿Âå°æ¹é£ä¹Â宽ï¼ÂThis region (is) so vast."
<br />Zuu zuen aeu neix hleny dhonghauux.
One classififer man this good/kind like that/so
"è¿Â个人é£ä¹Â好ï¼ÂThis man (is) so good."
<br />Zuu dhanx dhoei neix daeus ras?
One classififer rope this long how?
"è¿Âä¸Âæ¡绳åÂÂæÂÂå¤Âé¿ï¼ÂHow long (is) this rope?"
When a prepositional phrase, using the prepositions "ia" (被, by) or "dheuu" (被, by), act as adverbials, the prepositional phrase only modifies a head word that is a verb, and must be placed before that head word, e.g.,
Ia ba gaenys
by dog bite
"被çÂÂå¬ï¼Âbit by a dog"
<br />dheuu na taeix
by him hit
"被ä»ÂæÂÂï¼Âhit by him"
When a prepositional phrase, using the prepositions "tuuen" (ä»Â, by), "dhuus" (å¨, in/at), "ku" (对, to), "uengx" (Ã¥ÂÂ, and), or "nyuek" (Ã¥ÂÂ, and) act as adverbials, the prepositional phrase only modifies the head word that is a verb, and must be placed either before or after that head word, e.g.,
tuuen max zuu dhanx guen kaen hwous
From that one classifier road go up mountain
"ä»Âè¿Âä¸Âæ¡路ä¸Âå±±ï¼Âby that road (one can) go up the mountain"
<br />toek tuuen deuu cai
drop from on tree
"ä»Âæ Âä¸ÂæÂÂä¸ÂæÂ¥ï¼Âdrop from the tree"
<br />dhuus blongs dzoeng meuu = dzoeng meuu dhuus blongs
at house/home wait you = wait you at house/home
"å¨家çÂÂä½ ï¼Â(I'll) wait for you at home."
<br />ku na rien = rien ku na
to him say = say to him
"对ä»Â说ï¼Âsay to him"
<br />uengx meuu hei= hei uengx meuu
With you go = go with you
"Ã¥ÂÂä½ å»ï¼Â(I'll) go with you."
<br />meuu doengs nyuek na. = meuu nyuek na doengs.
You play with/and him = You with/and him play
"ä½ åÂÂä»Âç©ï¼ÂYou play with him."
Some prepositions, like "bhi" (æ¯Â, than/compare), "dhuas" (è¿Â, than), "dhong" (Ã¥ÂÂ/Ã¥ÂÂ/å¦Â, same/be like), or "bhaen" (Ã¥ÂÂ, be like), have nouns as adverbials to modify the adjective head word, of which some are placed before that head word, others after, and still others either before or after, e.g.,
Before the adjective head word:
Meuu bhi dhes peek.
You than/compare me tall
"ä½ æ¯ÂæÂÂé«Âï¼ÂYou (are) taller than me."
After the adjective head word:
Meuu peek dhuas na.
You tall than him
"ä½ é«Âè¿Âä»Âï¼ÂYou (are) taller than him."
<br />Ba long dhuas mieux.
Dog big than cat
"çÂÂ大è¿Âç«ï¼ÂA dog (is) bigger than a cat."
Before or after the adjective head word:
hloek bhaen laengs
deep like/as sea
"Ã¥ÂÂæµ·ä¸Âæ ·æ·±ï¼Âas deep as the sea."
<br />enyx dhong guty
small like/as needle
"Ã¥ÂÂéÂÂä¸Âæ ·å°Âï¼Âas small as a needle."
<br />Kai neix bhaen eps ghweis. = Kai neix ghweis bhaen eps.
Chicken this like/as duck fat = Chicken this fat as duck
"è¿Âåª鸡åÂÂé¸Âä¸Âæ ·èÂ¥ï¼ÂThis chicken (is) as fat as (a) duck."
The simple sentence includes subject-predicate sentence, no subject sentence, one word sentence, e.g.,
Fas fun lo.
sky rain accent
"天è¦Âä¸Âé¨äºÂï¼ÂIt's going to rain."
<br />Na hei bhe.
He go accent
"ä»Âå»äºÂï¼ÂHe went."
<br />Enyxlauux raeu he.
Child laugh accent
"å°Âå©ç¬ÂäºÂï¼Â(The) child(ren) laughed."
The simple sentences above include two elements: subjects and predicates, however, other elements like objects, complements, or adverbials can be included, e.g.,
(subject + predicate + object)
Hou lax tax.
I eat rice
"æÂÂÃ¥ÂÂé¥Âï¼ÂI eat rice."
(subject + predicate + complement)
Na qieus buuen bhe.
He bring come accent
"ä»Âæ¿æÂ¥äºÂï¼ÂHe brought (it with him)."
(subject + adverbial + predicate + complement)
Enyxlauux bhaeis fei hluet blongs.
Child already walk into house
"å°Âå©走è¿Âå±ÂÃ¥ÂÂï¼Â(The) child(ren) walked into the house."
This simple sentences look like inverted sentences, e.g.,
Tuut dhoei bhe.
Break rope accent
"æÂÂ绳äºÂï¼ÂThe rope (is) broken."
<br />Hloei aeu dhat.
Many people really/very
"人çÂÂå¤Âï¼Â(There are) so many people."
<br />Hlaeux hlai bhe.
Die fish accent
"é±¼æ»äºÂï¼ÂThe fish died."
Asrasï¼Â
Whoï¼Â
"è°Âï¼ÂWho?"
Ahyo!
Oh my!
"Ã¥ÂÂÃ¥ÂÂï¼ÂOh my!"
A: "Meuu kweis da kweisï¼Â" B: "Kweis."
You be willing to NEG be willing to be willing to
A: 'Are you willing (or) not willing?' B: '(Yes, I am) willing.'
A: ä½ æ¿æÂÂä¸Âæ¿æÂÂï¼ÂB:æ¿æÂÂ
There are two kinds of compound sentences; one is a coordinate compound sentence, the other is a subordinate compound sentence, e.g.,
The linked clauses in a coordinate compound sentence are equivalent. There are three kinds of relationships between linked clauses: parallel, progressive, and optional.
Usually, there is no need of conjunctions between clauses.
Hou kweis hei kuishuix, na kweis hei ang.
I will go have a meeting he will go field
"æÂÂè¦Âå»å¼Âä¼Âï¼Âä»Âè¦Âå»山æ Âå°ï¼ÂI'm going to a meeting, he's going to the field."
<br />Coem hweek hou ngan lax dhuas,
Fruit banana I also eat auxiliary past tense
zuuyunx hou ngan lax dhuas.
coconut I also eat auxiliary past tense
"é¦ÂèÂÂæÂÂÃ¥ÂÂè¿Âï¼Â椰åÂÂæÂÂä¹ÂÃ¥ÂÂè¿Âï¼ÂI've eaten bananas, and I have also eaten coconuts."
<br />Na hoen vuek veengs vuek riens,
He/she know how to do shirt do skirt
hoen vuek ang vuek dax.
know how to do hilly field do plain field
"她è½åÂÂè¡£æÂÂÃ¥ÂÂè£ÂÃ¥ÂÂï¼Âè½èÂÂç°ç§Âå°ï¼ÂShe can make shirts and skirts, (she also) can work (in) hilly (and) plain fields."
The conjunction words that express a progressive relationship between clauses are "loms" (Ã¥ÂÂ, still),"oms" (è¿Â, å´, yet),"ruus" (é½, all), "koms" (è¿Â, even/also), and their similar phrases such as "dacauxâ¦koms/uulomsâ¦"(ä¸Âä½Â...èÂÂä¸Â...ï¼Ânot only... but also...), e.g.,
Fas bhaeis cop, na loms da beuu.
Sky already late he still not come back
"天已ç»ÂæÂÂäºÂï¼Âä»Âè¿Âä¸ÂÃ¥ÂÂæÂ¥ï¼ÂIt was late, and he still (had) not come back."
<br />Fas oms da dhenys, na bhaeis hei ang he.
Sky yet not bright, he already go field accent
"天å°Âæª亮ï¼Âä»Âå·²ç»ÂÃ¥Âȍ°éÂÂäºÂï¼ÂIt was not yet the break of dawn, and he had already gone to the field."
<br />Meuuda man Moei, fa man Hlai, gha ruus man uxaeu Dongxgok.
You are Han, we are Li, we all are people China
"你们æ¯æ±ÂæÂÂï¼ÂæÂÂ们æ¯é»ÂæÂÂï¼Âå±们é½æ¯ä¸Âå½人ï¼ÂYou are Han, we are Li, we are all Chinese."
<br />Na kueng rien tun Hlai,
He know how to speak language/word Li
kueng rien koms tun Moei.
know how to speak also/even language/word Han
"ä»Âä¼Â说é»Âè¯Âï¼Âä¹Âä¼Â说æ±Âè¯Âï¼ÂHe knows how to speak the Li language, also knows how to speak the Han language."
<br />hou dacaux dzueis bhaeis, uuloms taeis bhaeis.
I not only read finished, but also write finished
"æÂÂä¸Âä» çÂÂå®ÂäºÂï¼ÂèÂÂä¸ÂÃ¥ÂÂå®ÂäºÂï¼ÂNot only did I finish reading, but I also finished writing."
c. The optional relationship
The conjunction words that express an optional relationship between clauses are "cuus" (æÂÂ, or), "cas" (æÂÂ, or), "casnus" (æÂÂ, or), "cuusnaus" (æÂÂ, or), and "dagoms" (æÂÂ, or), e.g.,
Pashlaus meuu buuen, cas pasghueng meuu buuen.
Old brother your come, or younger brother your come
"ä½ åÂ¥åÂ¥æÂ¥ï¼Âè¿Âæ¯你å¼Âå¼ÂæÂ¥ï¼Â(Either) your older brother (will) come, or your younger brother (will) come."
<br />Lax man cuusnaus lax taxï¼Â
Eat potato or eat rice
"Ã¥ÂÂç½è¯è¿Âæ¯米é¥Âï¼ÂDo you eat potatoes or rice?"
<br />Meuu rien ku na, dagoms rien ku hou.
You say/tell to him, or say/tell to me
"你对ä»Â说ï¼ÂæÂÂè åÂÂè¯ÂæÂÂï¼ÂYou tell him, or tell me."
The linked clauses in a coordinate compound sentence are not equivalent. There are three kinds of relationships between linked clauses: transitional, conditional, and causal.
Usually, the first clause is the subordinate clause, and the latter one is the major clause. The conjunction words that express a transitional relationship are "tom" (ä½Âæ¯, but), "oms" (å´, but), and "dagoms" (ä¸Âç¶, otherwise), "tus" (ä½Âæ¯, but), e.g.,
Uupans hou hei zok na, tom na hei qix.
Yesterday I go to him, but he go street
"æ¨天æÂÂå°ä»Â家å»ï¼Âä½Âæ¯ä»Âå·²ç»Âä¸Âè¡Âå»äºÂï¼ÂYesterday I went to (find) him (at his house), but he had already hit the streets."
<br />Na kweis vuek tun, oms dhas zuugheidhang.
She want sing a song, but fear shame
"她æ³å±æÂÂï¼ÂÃ¥ÂÂæÂÂ害ç¾Âï¼ÂShe wants to sing, but fears embarrassment."
<br />Kweis o goms o dhat, dagoms beuu blongs.
Want learn then learn well, otherwise go back home
"è¦Âå¦就çÂÂæ£å°å¦ï¼Âä¸Âç¶就åÂÂ家å»ï¼Â(If you) want to learn, then learn (it) well, otherwise, go back home."
Usually, the first clause is the subordinate clause indicating the condition, and the latter one is the major clause expressing the consequence. The conjunction words that express a conditional relationship are "laeis" (å¦ÂæÂÂ, if), "dalunx" (æ 论, no matter what), e.g.,
Dalunx na rien dhongras, hou ngan hei.
no matter what he say how, I also go
"ä¸Â管ä»ÂæÂÂ样说ï¼ÂæÂÂé½å»ï¼ÂNo matter what he says, I'll also go."
<br />Laeis na da buuen, dhes fan hei gongx na.
If he not come, I then go find him
"å¦ÂæÂÂä»Âä¸ÂæÂ¥ï¼ÂæÂÂå°±åÂȾ¾ä»Âï¼ÂIf he doesn't come, then I'll go find him."
<br />Laeis zaux tax, hou goms lax.
If have/there is rice, I then eat
"å¦ÂæÂÂæÂÂé¥Âï¼ÂæÂÂå°±åÂÂï¼ÂIf there is rice, then I (will) eat."
<br />Laeis na euu, meuu goms waeix ku hou bas.
If he agree, you then tell to me accent
"å¦ÂæÂÂä»ÂçÂÂåºÂï¼Âä½ å°±åÂÂè¯ÂæÂÂå§ï¼ÂIf he agrees, then (you) tell me."
Sometimes, the conditional sentence does not need a conjunction word, e.g.,
Tuuen kaux vuek gong, nge zaux gan zaux jien.
Out strength do work, must have money have money
"åªåÂÂå·¥ä½Âï¼Âä¸Âå®Âä¼ÂæÂÂéÂÂé±ï¼Â(If you) use strength to work, (you) will have money."
Usually, the first clause is the major clause indicating the result, and the latter one is the subordinate clause expressing the cause. The conjunction words that express a causal relationship are "hans" (å 为, because), "dagoms" (ä¸Âç¶, otherwise), e.g.,
<br />Fas fun yous hei, dagoms ia cok.
Sky rain don't go otherwise gain/get sickness
"天ä¸Âé¨äºÂï¼Âå«å»ï¼Âä¸Âç¶è¦Âå¾Âç ï¼ÂIt's raining, don't go, otherwise (you'll) get sick."
<br />Dhes da hei, hans dhes cok bhe.
I not go because I sick accent
"æÂÂä¸Âå»ï¼Âå 为æÂÂç äºÂï¼ÂI'm not going because I'm sick."
<br />Hou beuu bat dhoei, hans tuut bhaeis.
I come back take rope, because break totally
"æÂÂÃ¥ÂÂæÂ¥æ¿绳åÂÂï¼Âå 为堨æÂÂäºÂï¼ÂI came back to take a rope, because (my rope is) totally broken."
Sometimes, the word "hans" also can be used in a conditional clause, e.g.,
Jieng, hans hloei ges fa ngan duuengx.
Success, no matter what much price/cost we also give
"è½æÂÂÃ¥ÂÂçÂÂè¯Âï¼Âé£ä¹Âå¤Âå°Âé±æÂÂ们é½ç»Âï¼Â(Achieve) success, no matter how much it costs."
When the loan words "ienxuisâ¦dosdzis"are used to present the cause-result relationship, the causal clause is placed before the result clause, e.g.,
Ienxuis boux neix fas raenx, dosdzis daenslieng aiszangs peek.
Because year this sky dry, so produce not so high
"å 为ä»Â年天æ±ï¼ÂæÂÂ以产éÂÂä¸Â太é«Âï¼ÂBecause this year it (is) dry, (so) the produce (is) not so much."
In view of idea expressed, the compressed sentence is a compound sentence; in view of construction, it is a simple sentence.
Dhes ghais meuu vuek meshes goms vuek meshes.
I tell you do what then do what
"æÂÂå«你åÂÂä»Âä¹Âå°±åÂÂä»Âä¹Âï¼ÂWhatever I tell you to do, do (it)."
<br />Hou kweis rien oms dhas.
I want say but fear
"æÂÂæ³说åÂÂ害æÂÂï¼ÂI want to speak but (I) fear (to say it)."
<br />Na faets ngop faets hlenyvis.
He more... think more... happy
"ä»Âè¶Âæ³è¶Âé«Âå ´ï¼ÂThe more he thinks the more happy he is."
<br />Bou neix luuengx bhoux luuengx ghweis.
Pig this more... feed more... fat
"è¿Âåªçªè¶ÂÃ¥ÂÂè¶ÂèÂ¥ï¼ÂThe more this pig is fed the fatter it is."
<br />Na lax vuek lax dzuuns.
He more... do more... fast
"ä»Âè¶ÂÃ¥ÂÂè¶Âå¿«ï¼ÂThe more he works the faster he gets/becomes."
<br />Aeu ceeng buuen ceeng hloei.
He more... come more... many
"人è¶ÂæÂ¥è¶Âå¤Âï¼ÂThe people coming (are) more and more."
According to the function and mood, Hlai sentences can be classified as declarative sentences, interrogative sentences, imperative sentences, and exclamatory sentences.
Hou kweis hei ang.
I will go hilly field
"æÂÂè¦Âå»山æ Âå°ï¼ÂI will go to the hilly field."
<br />Neix man veengs na.
This is shirt/top her/his
"è¿Âæ¯ä»Â/她çÂÂè¡£æÂÂï¼ÂThis is her/his shirt/top."
Sometimes, the linking verb is omitted, e.g.,
Neix veengs na.
This shirt/top her/his
"è¿Âæ¯ä»Â/她çÂÂè¡£æÂÂï¼ÂThis (is) her/his shirt/top."
Neix ghwaix veengs na.
This is not shirt/top her/his
"è¿Âä¸Âæ¯ä»Â/她çÂÂè¡£æÂÂï¼ÂThis is not her/his shirt."
<br />Na da buuen zo.
He not come accent
"ä»Âè¿Â没æÂ¥å¢ï¼ÂHe has not come yet."
There are several interrogative pronouns that are used: "uuras/asras" (è°Â, who?), "meshes" (ä»Âä¹Â, what?), "dhongras" (æÂÂæ ·, how?), "ras" (åªï¼Âå¦Âä½Â, where? which? how?), "qiras" (ä½Âæ¶, when?), and "hloeiras" (å¤Âå°Â, How much/many?), e.g.,
Neix veengs asras?
This shirt/top who?
"è¿Âæ¯è°ÂçÂÂè¡£æÂÂï¼ÂWhose shirt is this?"
<br />Uuras uengx hou hei?
Who with me go?
"è°Âè·ÂæÂÂå»ï¼ÂWho(will) go with me?"
<br />Neix man meshes?
This is what?
"è¿Âæ¯ä»Âä¹Âï¼ÂWhat is this?"
<br />Vuek dhongras naus dhiu?
Do how just right?
"æÂÂä¹Âæ ·åÂÂæÂÂ好ï¼ÂHow should it be done, so that it will be done right?"
<br />Meuu hei zok ras?
You go to/toward where?
"ä½ åÂȌªå¿ï¼ÂWhere are you heading?"
<br />Na qiras buuen?
He when come?
"ä»Âä½Âæ¶æÂ¥ï¼ÂWhen (will) he come?"
<br />zaux hloeiras zuen uucok?
Have how many classifier sick
"æÂÂå 个ç å·ï¼ÂHow many (people) are sick?"
These questions require an answer: "Yes or no".
Ghwaix na bas?
Is not him accent
"ä¸Âæ¯ä»Âå§ï¼ÂIt is not him, right?"
<br />Neix guu meuu hos?
This belong to you accent
"è¿Âæ¯你çÂÂÃ¥ÂÂï¼ÂDoes this belong to you?"
<br />Meuu bhaeis lax tax hixhos?
You already eat rice accent
"ä½ å·²ç»ÂÃ¥ÂÂè¿Âé¥ÂäºÂÃ¥ÂÂï¼ÂDid you already eat (rice)?"
(There are several more words used in the interrogative mood, so please see the section on accented words.)
Meuu kweis hei da?
You will go NEG?
"ä½ è¦ÂÃ¥ÂȌÂÂï¼ÂWon't you go?"
<br />Meuu kweis da?
You be willing to NEG?
"ä½ æ¿æÂÂÃ¥ÂÂï¼ÂAren't you willing?"
<br />Meuu kweis laeis hisdhop da?
You want see movie NEG?
"ä½ è¦ÂçÂÂçµ影åÂÂï¼ÂDon't you want to see a movie?"
<br />Gong neix hleny da?
Stuff this good NEG?
"è¿Âä¸Â西好åÂÂï¼ÂIsn't this stuff good?"
The conjunction word "cuus/cas" can be added before the negative words "da" to express a question, e.g.,
Meuu qieng dheuu cuus da?
You want take or not?
"ä½ æ³æ¿åÂÂï¼ÂDo you want to take (it) or not?"
<br />Meuu bhaeis lax cuus da?
You already eat or not?
"ä½ å·²ç»ÂÃ¥ÂÂäºÂÃ¥ÂÂï¼ÂHave you already eaten or not?"
<br />Veengs neix hleny cas da?
shirt/top this good or not?
"è¿Â件衣æÂÂ好åÂÂï¼ÂIs this shirt/top good or not?"
The conjunction word "cuus/cas" can be added between two options to express a question, e.g.,
Meuu dheuu cuus ais?
You want or don't want?
"ä½ è¦Âä¸Âè¦Âï¼ÂDo you want (it) or not?"
<br />Fa caem cuus bhiek?
We carry with hands or carry on shoulders?
"æÂÂ们æ¬è¿Âæ¯æÂÂï¼ÂShould we carry (it) with (our) hands or on (our) shoulders?"
<br />Dhat cas tuas?
Genuine/real/true or false/fake?
"çÂÂçÂÂè¿Âæ¯åÂÂçÂÂï¼ÂAre you telling the truth, or did you make it up?"
Another related conjunction word "cuusnaus/casnus" can be added between two options to express a question, e.g.,
Na hei cuusnaus hou heiï¼Â
He go or I go?
"ä»Âå»è¿Âæ¯æÂÂå»ï¼ÂWill he go or should I go?"
When a speaker demonstrates a request or a command, usually he will express it with an accent. When the subject is omitted, it can become a one word sentence, e.g.,
Buuen!
Come
"æÂ¥ï¼ÂComeï¼Â"
<br />Uuhaux laus zuucoeis bas.
tomorrow pick litchi (fruit) accent
"æÂÂ天æÂÂèÂÂæÂÂå§ï¼ÂTomorrow let's (finish) pick(ing) litchi (=a kind of fruit)!"
<br />Uengxtoengs dzuuns buuen res!
Everyone quickly come accent
"大家快æÂ¥å§ï¼ÂEveryone, come quickly!"
(There are several more words used in the imperative mood, so please see the section on accented words.)
When a speaker expresses a prohibition, usually the adverbial word "yous" (å«, don't) is used.
Yous vuek!
Don't do
"å«åÂÂï¼ÂQuit doing that!"
There are several words used in the exclamatory mood, like "ho", "a", "aei", "aidzo", "aiho", "euu", and "o". These words strongly express the speaker's feelings.
Euu! Hauux bhe!
Yes! That is (it)!
"å¯ï¼Âæ¯ï¼ÂYes! That's it!"
<br />Aei! Dhongras vuek naus hleny?
Oh my! How do just/then good
"Ã¥ÂÂÃ¥ÂÂï¼ÂæÂÂä¹ÂÃ¥ÂÂæÂÂ好ï¼ÂOh my! What's a good way to do this?"
Cok ho!
Pain accent
"ç¼åÂÂï¼ÂOuch!"
<br />Hleny hloei ho!
good/so many accent
"好å¤ÂÃ¥ÂÂï¼ÂSo many!"
Aidzo! Keuuhwoek ho!
Oh my! Poor accent
"Ã¥ÂÂÃ¥ÂÂï¼Âå¯æÂÂÃ¥ÂÂï¼ÂOh (my)! Poor (guy)!"
<br />Tau bhaeis poens a!
Pot already break accent
"é 已ç»Âç ´äºÂï¼ÂThe pot broke!"
<br />Bheuucai neix hleny lax ho!
Vegetable this good eat accent
"è¿ÂèÂÂ好åÂÂÃ¥ÂÂï¼ÂThis vegetable (=dish) (is) good to eat (=delicious)!"
<br />Noms neix ghan a!
Water this cold accent
"è¿Âæ°´åÂÂÃ¥ÂÂï¼ÂThis water is cold!"
(There are several more words used in the exclamatory mood, so please see the section on accented words.)
Due to the frequent contacts made between the Li (é»ÂæÂÂ) and the Han (æ±ÂæÂÂ) over a relatively lengthy stretch of time, the Hlai language has been influenced by the Chinese language and its grammar. As previously mentioned, the Hlai counting system for dates, ordinal numbers, and measurements have been influenced by Chinese. In this chapter, the Chinese influence in Hlai's word order of attribute phrases, verb-object-complement phrases, and interrogative sentences is discussed.
Nouns act as head words, and the attribute word is a number. Natively, the number should be placed before the head word. But, due to the Chinese influence, the number can be placed after the head word, e.g.,
When nouns act as head words, and the attribute words are demonstrative pronouns and numbers, the number is placed before the head word and the demonstrative pronoun after the head word. But, due to Chinese influence, the word order has become more like the word order in Chinese, e.g.,
When two nouns are placed together as an attribute phrase, the front noun is the head word, and the back one the attribute word. However, due to Chinese influence, the word order can be changed, but only when applied to loan word attribute phrases, e.g.,
Another kind of attribute phrase is where the noun is the head word and the adjective is the attribute word. When the words in the phrase are all loan words, the word order follows the Chinese one, e.g.,
However, when the words in the phrase are not all loanwords, the adjective is placed after the noun, e.g.,
When verbs act as head words, the word order is verb-object-complement. But, due to Chinese influence, the word order, verb-complement-object has also been adopted, e.g.,
The native ways to denote a question in the Hlai language are using interrogative pronouns, interrogative accents, or placing the negation word at the end of a sentence. However, due to Chinese influence, a new word order has appeared, which is, verb (head word) + negation + verb, e.g.,
The native possessive auxiliary word in Hlai is . In the Chinese language, the possessive auxiliary word is , and both its usage and function have been imputed into the Hlai language, e.g.,