Di Xin of Shang () or Shou, King of Shang (), was the last king of the Shang dynasty of ancient China. He is also known by a pejorative title, King Zhòu of Shang (; ) in Zhou dynasty texts and beyond. He is contemporaneously recorded in bronze relics, where his temple name, Di Xin, is used.
In later times, the story of âÂÂKing Zhòuâ became a cautionary tale on what could befall a kingdom if its ruler gave into corruption and moral depravity. However, owing to the small number of artifacts found from his rule, his actual life and deeds are not well understood beyond posthumous accounts.
"Di Xin" (å¸Âè¾Â) is the official title given by the Shang dynasty imperial house, formatted in a similar way to Emperor Shun and Emperor Yao with the thearch title di 帠placed before his name. This stands in contrast to later emperors, who would have it placed after.
Di Xin was born with the family name Zi, lineage name Yin, and the given name Shou. He was called Shou, King of Shang Ã¥ÂÂÃ¥ÂÂç by the kingdom of Zhou when he was alive.
After Di Xin had allegedly killed himself at Deer Terrace Pavilion, he was given a derogatory posthumous name, King Zhòu of Shang () by the succeeding Zhou dynasty, with Zhòu () meaning "horse crupper", implying "injustice and harm". It is also the part of a saddle or harness that is most likely to be soiled by the horse, and an area most likely to be whipped. However, Sima Qian posthumously claims that everyone in the empire had dubbed Di Xin this name due to a tyrannical reign.
This title Zhòu and the enemy Zhà Âu å¨ Dynasty are only pronounced similarly today in Modern Standard Mandarin Chinese. Proceeding from the BaxterâÂÂSagart reconstruction of Old Chinese, which would have been spoken at the time, to Baxter's transcription for Middle Chinese, to the modern-day pronunciation in Pinyin would be as follows:
Di Xin is occasionally called Zhòu Xin (), merging his Shang and Zhou names.
Centuries after his death, the name "King Zhou of Shang" had become shorthand for an archetype of wicked rule.
Di Xin was the younger of three sons to Di Yi, his brothers named Zi Qi () and Zi Yan (). As QiâÂÂs mother was of low birth, whereas Di XinâÂÂs was the principal consort, he was made the heir and ascended the throne after Di Yi passed away. Di Xin had two uncles, Ji Zi and Bi Gan. He bore a single son named Wu Geng.
Outside of family, little is known of Di XinâÂÂs early life outside of posthumous accounts. In Chapter 15 of Xunzi, Di Xin is recorded as having been tall, mighty, and intelligent, even from a young age, able to defeat a hundred men on his own. Sima Qian notes that Di Xin was cunning and able to talk his way out of trouble, and would boast of his abilities being above all others, even his own ministers. He was also said to be able to fight beasts with his bare hands. Di Xin's strength is recorded in ç²3939, where he is recorded as having hunted a white Sumatran rhinoceros or Short-horned water buffalo during the 10th year of his reign.
After succeeding the throne, Di Xin changed the Shang capital to Mo 沬, then change the name to Chaoge æÂÂæÂÂ, in modern-day Qi County, Hebi in Henan. Di Xin is known for his wars with the Renfang, Linfang æÂÂæ¹, and Hufang èÂÂæ¹. The Hufang were particularly regarded as being "rebellious" å in bronze inscriptions. These wars are recorded as having been particularly costly to the Shang dynasty in posthumous accounts and were seen as the main reason for its downfall.
To the horror of the Zhou people, Di Xin was known to employ fugitives in his governmental offices based on merit. This method was found to suppress the clans who held too much power in court. Additionally, he was known to appoint women to positions as well, a trend that would evaporate after his reign. Women were responsible for managing rituals, advising military affairs, managing court and guests, and they were highly respected by the Shang state, which was observed even during the Zhou-Qin classical period. The appointment of women to power during the Shang dynasty indicates a culture with high levels of gender equality, while the Zhou state, which was developing Confucian rituals at the time, was more patriarchal.
In contemporary records, as is the role of the Shang king, Di Xin is recorded as having upheld Shang dynasty religion in several bronze and oracle bone inscriptions, where he participates in feng è±Â, the Shang dynasty concept of ritual communion with ancestors. This implies a trend of reduction in human sacrifice compared to previous rulers; likewise, after Di Xin's reign ended, ritual sacrifice increased in the Zhou dynasty.
In the fourth year of his reign, he performed an yi sacrifice on an Yisi day dedicated to his father Di Yi, signalling the start of another ritual cycle. This was actualised with a zhu sacrifice being made later, to which an individual named Bi Qi é²堶 was rewarded with cowry money. This activity would continue at least into his 22nd year, having performed a rong ritual for his father, signalling the end of a cycle. He rewarded the minister assisting him with cowry money è²Â, which was spent on a bronze vessel.
During his 15th year on a Disi day of Rong sacrifice, Di Xin is recorded as having inspected Kuai during his war with the Renfang. He rewarded an individual named Xiaochen Yu å°Âè£è with cowry money, who would then make imaged after a Sumatran rhinoceros.
Di Xin had several concubines, of whom two are named, though contemporary sources are scarce. His favourite was allegedly Daji, who is described as a temptress who manipulated him into committing torturous acts, of which the two garnered pleasure. His second concubine was the daughter of Lord Jiu ä¹Â侯女, of whom lacks a definitive name. She was presented to Di Xin by a ruler from the Guifang, who had become allies with the Shang after a three-year war. However, she was allegedly killed due to her disliking lust ("ä¸ÂÃ¥ÂÂæ·«"), and her father was killed after. However, conflicting accounts claim that Daji called her ugly and feared Di Xin would no longer pay attention to her, convincing him to kill her. Her tomb is located in Qixian County, Hebi in Henan.
In , the army of Ji Fa of Zhou, invaded with 45,000 troops led by Jiang Ziya, compared to the Shang's 170,000. Despite this, due to having been occupied with fighting the Renfang, they had caught the Shang unaware whilst troop morale was low. This led to a surprise defeat. The battle is recorded on the Li gui (vessel), the only contemporary epigraphic evidence of its occurrence.
When his loss at the Battle of Muye was clear, Di Xin is alleged to have gathered up his treasures, dressed in his finest wear, ran to Deer Terrace Pavilion, and committed self-immolation. Thereafter, he was beheaded and had his head hung on a white-flag pole by Ji Fa. Ji Fa then killed consort Daji, freed Viscount Ji ç®ÂÃ¥ÂÂ, paid respects to Bi Gan, and made a eulogy in the memory of Shangrong Ã¥ÂÂ容.
Di Xin's tomb is thought to be No. 1567 in Yinxu, but his body was not found inside; whether he was buried there or it was desecrated by the Zhou is unclear. After the annexation of Shang, Di XinâÂÂs brothers Zi Qi and Zi Yan would successively rule the vassal state Song in the burgeoning Zhou dynasty.
As many accounts of Di Xin's reign were written from the perspective of the conquering Zhou dynasty, and/or reproduced from lost documents, with increasing allegations of brutality over time, their authenticity is considered debatable. Even during the Warring States period in the Analects, Zi Gong, using the Zhou exonym yet questioning Di Xin's actions, states thusly:
<blockquote> Ã¥ÂÂè²¢æ°ï¼ÂãÂÂç´Âä¹Âä¸ÂÃ¥ÂÂï¼Âä¸Âå¦Âæ¯ä¹ÂçÂÂä¹ÂãÂÂæ¯以åÂÂÃ¥ÂÂæ¡屠ä¸ÂæµÂï¼Â天ä¸Âä¹Âæ¡çÂÂæ¸çÂÂãÂÂãÂÂ
Zi Gong said, "Zhou's wickedness was not so great as that name implies. Therefore, the superior man hates to dwell in a low-lying situation, where all the evil of the world will flow in upon him." </blockquote>
Gu Xiagang and other Doubting Antiquity School historians further noted the further into later periods sources were, the more detailed and numerous the accusations against Di Xin became. Most notably, the concept of the Mandate of Heaven 天å½ as mentioned in these posthumous texts is a subject of considerable debate. Some scholars, like Chao Fulin, argue that the Shang dynasty did not possess the later concept of the 'Mandate of Heaven', which dictates the rise and fall of dynasties. In the 'Book of Shang,' for example, the term 'Mandate of Heaven' actually refers to 'the command of the ancestors' (the spiritual power of the ancestors in heaven to bless or abandon one's life).
The apocryphal "Great Declaration" in the Book of Documents raises six charges against Di Xin: Not paying reverence to heaven, committing calamities against those below him, abandoning himself to drink and lust, extending punishments to relatives, nepotism via hereditary receipt, killing pregnant women, and building excessive royal quarters (e.g. Palaces, gardens, pavilions). Similar ideas would be repeated in Records of the Grand Historian, Lushi Chunqiu, and other works. According to Sima Qian, he even hosted festive orgies, where many people engaged in immoral things at the same time with his concubines and created songs with crude, erotic lyrics and poor rhythm. In legends, he is depicted as having come under the influence of his wicked wife Daji, and committing all manner of evil and cruel deeds with her. However, contemporary records such as bronze vessels and oracle bone inscriptions contradict this characterisation, with him being seemingly consistent in his observance of the religion of the Shang dynasty and ancestral rites.
One of the most famous forms of entertainment Di Xin enjoyed was the "Lake of Wine and Forest of Meat" () built at the Deer Terrace Pavilion. A large pool, big enough for several canoes, was constructed with inner linings of polished oval-shaped stones from the seashore. This allowed for the entire pool to be filled with wine. A small island was constructed in the middle of the pool, where trees were planted, which had branches made of roasted meat skewers hanging over the pool. This allowed Di Xin and his friends and concubines to drift on canoes in the pool. When they thirsted, they reached down into the pool with their hands and drank the wine. When they hungered, they reached up with their hands to eat the roasted meat. The narrative of the "Lake of Wine and Forest of Meat" was questioned as early as the Han dynasty. Scholar Wang Chong, in his work Lunheng, suggested the accounts of "wine pools and meat forests" were unreliable. During the Southern Song dynasty, scholar Luo Mi wrote in the Lushi that he also considered the allegations against Di Xin to be largely unreliable and exaggerated after reviewing various documents. A large, stone, artificial pool thought to be the pool at the Deer Terrace Pavilion was unearthed in Yanshi, Henan in 1999. As water wells were found nearby, the researchers concluded that it was not designed to provide groundwater to individuals, but whether it was used for recreation, aesthetic, or ritual use is unclear.
In order to please Daji, he created the "Punishment of burning flesh with a hot iron ()". One large hollow bronze cylinder was stuffed with burning charcoal and allowed to burn until red-hot; then prisoners were made to hug the cylinder, which resulted in a painful and unsightly death. Di Xin and Daji were said to become highly aroused after watching such torture. Victims ranged from ordinary people and prisoners to high government officials, such as Mei Bo.
In the most common narrative, Di Xin killed his uncle Bi Gan by ripping his heart out. The XiaâÂÂShangâÂÂZhou Chronology Project and other studies have pointed out inconsistencies. Bi Gan's death due to his confrontation with his nephew is recorded in the Spring and Autumn period, while the account of his heart being removed by Di Xin appeared much later in the fables of the Warring States period, indicating that extra details were likely added to these accounts reinforce Di Xin's tyrannical image.
In order to fund Di Xin's heavy daily expenses, heavy taxes were implemented. The people suffered greatly, and lost all hope for the Shang dynasty. His brother Wei Zi tried to persuade him to change, but was rebuked. His uncle Bi Gan similarly pleaded with him, but Di Xin had his heart ripped out so he could see what the heart of a sage looked like. When his other uncle Ji Zi heard this, he went to plead with the kingly nephew and, feigning madness, was imprisoned.
Di Xin is mentioned in the Confucian Analects (19 "Ã¥ÂÂå¼µ"); and also in the Three Character Classic. Di Xin is also one of the main subjects of Fengshen Yanyi (Investiture of the Gods) and its various derivatives in popular media. Thus, he has served as a negative exemplar of Confucian principles, presented as the archetypal wicked ruler who justifies regime change according to the Mandate of Heaven, as well as becoming an icon in popular culture.
In Fengshen Yanyi, Di Xin visits the Goddess Nüwa's temple and offended the Goddess with his lustful comments towards her beauty. In response, Nüwa decides that the Shang dynasty should end and sends her three subordinates to become three beautiful women, including Daji, to bewitch Di Xin. Under the influence of these women, Di Xin becomes a ruthless king, losing the support of the people and triggering his downfall. In the same text, Jiang Ziya recognized that King Di Xin was a well-versed and well-trained individual who became an incapable ruler only because he had fallen victim to seduction. After his death, Jiang Ziya deified King Di Xin as the Tianxi Xing ( "Star of Heavenly Happiness"). As the Tianxi Xing, he had the responsibility of managing the marriage affairs of humans. In the novel, King Di Xin has a wife named Queen Jiang, while Daji served as an imperial concubine. King Di Xin had two sons, Yin Hong and Yin Jiao, with Queen Jiang. The character of Queen Jiang in the novel was based on the real historical figure and consort of King Di Xin, Jiuhou Nü. Jiuhou Nü was the daughter of the leader of the Guifang, Jiuhou, and was wedded to King Di Xin through a political alliance.