Baháüu'lláh (, born Ḥusayn-ûAlÃÂ; 12 November 1817 â 29 May 1892) was an Iranian religious leader who founded the BaháüàFaith. He was born to an aristocratic family in Iran and was exiled due to his adherence to the messianic Bábism. In 1863, in Ottoman Iraq, he first announced his claim to a revelation from God and spent the rest of his life in further imprisonment in the Ottoman Empire. His teachings revolved around the principles of unity and religious renewal, ranging from moral and spiritual progress to world governance.
Baháüu'lláh was raised with no formal education but was well-read and devoutly religious. His family was considerably wealthy, and at the age of 22 he turned down a position in the government, instead managing family properties and donating time and money to charities. At the age of 27 he accepted the claim of the Báb and became one of the most outspoken supporters of the new religious movement which advocated, among other things, of Islamic law, which attracted heavy opposition. At the age of 33, during a governmental attempt to exterminate the movement, Baháüu'lláh narrowly escaped death, his properties were confiscated, and he was banished from Iran. Just before leaving, while imprisoned in the SÃÂyáh-Chál dungeon, Baháüu'lláh claimed to receive revelations from God marking the beginning of his divine mission. After settling in Iraq, Baháüu'lláh again attracted the ire of Iranian authorities, and they requested that the Ottoman government move him farther away. He spent months in Constantinople where the authorities became hostile to his religious claims and put him under house arrest in Edirne for four years, followed by two years of harsh confinement in the prison-city of Acre. His restrictions were gradually eased until his final years were spent in relative freedom in the area surrounding Acre.
Baháüu'lláh wrote at least 1,500 letters, some book-length, that have been translated into at least 802 languages. Some notable examples include the Hidden Words, the Kitáb-i-ÃÂqán, and the Kitáb-i-Aqdas. Some teachings are mystical and address the nature of God and the progress of the soul, while others address the needs of society, religious obligations of his followers, or the structure of BaháâÂÂàinstitutions that would propagate the religion. He viewed humans as fundamentally spiritual beings and called upon individuals to develop divine virtues and further the material and spiritual advancement of society.
Baháüu'lláh died in 1892 near Acre. His burial place is a destination for pilgrimage by his followers, known as BaháâÂÂÃÂs, who now reside in 236 countries and territories and number between 5 and 8 million. BaháüÃÂs regard Baháüu'lláh as a Manifestation of God in succession to others like Buddha, Jesus, or Muhammad.
Baháüu'lláh's given name was Ḥusayn-ûAlÃÂ, and as the son of a nobleman in the province of Núr, he was known as MÃÂrzá Ḥusayn-ûAlàNúrà(Persian: ). In 1848 he took the title Baháü (èÃÂçá), Arabic for "glory" or "splendour", or Baháüu'lláh (, ), as a glorification of God.
Many symbols and phrases of the BaháüàFaith derive their significance from the word Baháü. For example, a nine-pointed star or nine-sided temples are references to the numerical value of Baháü according to a system of numerology (b=2, h=5, á=1, ü=1); the word Baháüàindicates a follower of Baháü, and his son ûAbdu'l-Bahá (Servant of Baháü) chose his title to demonstrate servitude toward Baháüu'lláh.
In the 1930s, BaháüÃÂs adopted a standardized system of transliterating Arabic that renders Arabic faithfully into Roman script. The vowels without diacritical marks are short, and those with diacritical marks are long. His name is pronounced in four syllables: Ba, as in bat; há, as in hard; the apostrophe-like mark after "Bahá" is for the Arabic letter hamza which represents the glottal stop; u'l as in old (the apostrophe represents a contraction and is not pronounced); and láh as in law.
Common transliterations of the name, with or without diacritical marks, include Baha'u'llah, Bahaullah, and Baháü Alláh.
There are two known photographs of Baháüu'lláh, both taken in Adrianople. BaháâÂÂÃÂs avoid displaying photographs or imagery of Baháüu'lláh in public or in their homes, and prefer that others also avoid displaying them in books and websites. One picture is shown to BaháâÂÂÃÂs during visits to the International Archives building as part of an organized BaháâÂÂàpilgrimage; it may also be displayed on certain other highly significant special occasions. The other image was reproduced by William Miller in his 1974 polemic against the BaháüàFaith.
Baháüu'lláh was born in Tehran, Iran, on 12 November 1817. Baháüàauthors trace his ancestry to Abraham through both his wives Keturah and Sarah, to the Zoroaster, to David's father Jesse, and to Yazdegerd III, the last king of the Sasanian Empire. His mother was KhadÃÂjih Khánum, his father MÃÂrzá ûAbbás NúrÃÂ, known as MÃÂrzá Buzurg, served as vizier to Imám-Virdi MÃÂrzá, the twelfth son of Fath-Ali Shah Qajar.
Baháüu'lláh married ÃÂsÃÂyih Khánum, the daughter of a nobleman, in Tehran in 1835 when he was 18 and she was 15. In his early twenties Baháüu'lláh declined the life of privilege offered by his aristocratic lineage, instead devoting his time and resources to a range of charitable works that earned him renown as "the Father of the Poor".
The Báb, a 24-year-old merchant from Shiraz, stirred Persia with his claim in May 1844, to not only be the promised redeemer of Islam (the QaâÂÂim or Mahdi), but a new prophet of God similar to Moses, Jesus, and Muhammad. His original name was ÿAlàMuḥammad, and later assumed the title of the Báb (), indicating his position as a spiritual "gate to divine knowledge", and to a still greater God-sent educator whose imminent appearance he was preparing the way for.
Soon after declaring his spiritual mission to Mullá Husayn, the Báb sent him to Tehran to deliver a special tablet to one whom God would guide him to. After learning about Baháüu'lláh through an acquaintance, Mullá Husayn felt compelled to arrange for Baháüu'lláh to receive the tabletâÂÂthis news brought great joy to the Báb when Mullá Husayn wrote him about it. BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh received the tablet when he was 27, he immediately acknowledged the truth of the Báb's message and arose to share it with others. In his native province of Núr, BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh's notability as a prominent local provided numerous opportunities to teach the BábàFaith, and his trips attracted many to the new religion, including Muslim clerics. His Tehran home became a center for activities, and he generously gave financial support for the religion. In the summer of 1848, BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh attended and hosted a gathering at Badasht in the province of Khorasan, where 84 Bábàdisciples met for 22 days. At that conference historic discussions took place between those who wanted to maintain Islamic law (the religious heritage of most early BábÃÂs) and those who believed the Báb had inaugurated a new religious dispensation. Baháüu'lláh influenced agreement around the latter point of view. It was at Badasht that MÃÂrzá Ḥusayn-ûAlàNúràassumed the name Baháâ and also gave new spiritual names to all other attendees; thereafter the Báb addressed tablets to them by those names. When Táhirih, the most prominent female disciple of the Báb, was arrested after the conference, Baháüu'lláh intervened to protect her. Subsequently, he himself was temporarily confined and punished with bastinado.
The BábàFaith quickly spread across Persia, attracting large numbers of adherents. This provoked widespread opposition from both Islamic clerics fearful of losing congregants and associated benefits, and from civil authorities afraid of the growing influence of the Bábàcommunity, resulting in thousands of BábÃÂs being killed in relentless campaigns of persecution. In July 1850 the Báb himself was executed by firing squad in Tabriz at the age of 30.
In his teachings the Báb identifies himself as the first of two Manifestations of God whom the Creator was sending to usher in the enduring peace that is to signify humanity's attainment of maturityâÂÂwhen all people will live in unity as one human family. BaháüÃÂs hold that the Báb's teachings lay the groundwork "for the eventual establishment of a society characterized by the unity of nations, fellowship of religions, equal rights of all people, and a compassionate, consultative, tolerant, democratic, moral world order". Woven throughout the Báb's teachings are references to "He whom God shall make manifest", the great Promised One for whom he was preparing the way. In numerous prophesies the Báb stated that the next divine educator would appear shortly after his own expected martyrdom. In one of his major works, the Báb stated: "Well is it with him who fixeth his gaze upon the Order of Baháüu'lláh, and rendereth thanks unto his Lord."
Events leading up to and after the execution of the Báb were tumultuous for BábÃÂs. As Muslim leaders incited fanatic mobs to violence against them, many BábÃÂsâÂÂwhile refusing to take offensive steps against attackersâÂÂdid take actions to defend themselves, but commonly ended-up being slaughtered. On 15 August 1852, two Bábàyouth, in retaliation for the killings of the Báb and his leading disciples, made an attempt to assassinate the Iranian king. As Nasiri'd-Din Shah passed along a public road the two blocked the monarch to fire birdshot at him. The king escaped without serious injury, but the incident led to an outburst of persecution against BábÃÂs far exceeding past events.
Though investigations found the offending pair acted alone, a "reign of terror" was unleashed, killing at least 10,000 BábÃÂs that same year as government ministers vied with one another to collectively punish known or suspected BábÃÂs, including BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh. Well known for his support of the Bábàcause, Baháüu'lláh was arrested and incarcerated in the subterranean SÃÂyáh-Chál of Tehran, where he was bound in heavy chains that left life-long scars. Baháüu'lláh was confined to that dungeon for four months, as the mother of the Shah and authorities seeking to curry favor with the king sought ways to justify executing him.
BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh relates that during imprisonment in the SÃÂyáh-Chál he had several mystical experiences, in which he received his mission as a manifestation of God, the Promised One heralded by the Báb. BaháâÂÂÃÂs view this dawning of BaháâÂÂu'lláh's spiritual mission as the beginning of fulfillment of the Báb's prophecies regarding "Him whom God shall make manifest". The "inseparable" nature and unity of the twin revelations of the Báb and BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh are why BaháâÂÂÃÂs consider both faiths as forming one complete religious entity, and the reason the 1844 declaration of the Báb is considered the starting date of the BaháâÂÂàFaith.
When it was proven beyond any doubt that Baháüu'lláh was innocent of involvement with the attempt against the Shah's life, the Shah finally agreed to free him but decreed that Baháüu'lláh would be permanently banished from Persia. Dispossessed of his extensive properties and wealth, in the exceptionally severe winter of January 1853 Baháüu'lláh with family members undertook a three-month journey to Baghdad, thus beginning what became exile for the rest of his life in territories of the Ottoman Empire.
Upon settling in Baghdad, Baháüu'lláh began dispatching communications and teachers to encourage and revive flagging spirits of persecuted followers of the Báb in Persia. Over time, a number of BábÃÂs moved to Baghdad to be close to BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh. One of these was Mirza Yahya, later known as Subh-i-Azal, a half-brother 13 years younger than BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh, who followed him into the BábàFaith and even accompanied him on some early journeys on its behalf. After their father's death, Yahya's education and care were largely overseen by BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh. During BahaâÂÂuâÂÂllah's imprisonment in the SÃÂyáh-Chál Yahya went into hiding, but after BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh's exile to Ottoman Iraq Yahya left Iran in disguise and made his way to Baghdad.
For a time, Yahya served as BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh's secretary in Baghdad, but envy for the growing admiration BábÃÂs showed BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh led Yahya to seek leadership of the Bábàreligion. Attempting to elevate himself among BábÃÂs, Yahya and a few supporters referenced a letter the Báb had written a few years earlier when Yahya was still a teenager, naming Yahya to nominal leadership pending the appearance of "Him whom God shall make manifest". Yahya claimed the letter meant he was actually appointed the successor or vicegerent of the Báb. Knowledgeable BábÃÂs promptly rejected Yahya's bold claim, because the referenced letter indicated no such status, and due to the fact that other writings of the Báb specifically "eliminated the institution of successorship, or vicegerency" from his religion. The Báb also decreed no one's words would be binding upon believers until the advent of the Promised One. Others questioned Yahya's motives, considering he had never done anything to protect the BábàFaith or the lives of BábÃÂs over which he was now claiming a high position. To bolster his effort, Yahya simultaneously sought to discredit BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh by spreading false rumors and accusations about him, which stirred up feelings among BábÃÂs in the Baghdad community.
Declining to dispute with Yahya or do anything to "endanger the unity and survival of the already demoralized Bábàcommunity", BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh entrusted his family to the care of his brother Mirza Musa and without notice left Baghdad on 10 April 1854 for mountains in the north near Sulaymaniyyih in Iraq. He later wrote that he withdrew to avoid becoming a source of disagreement within the Bábàcommunity.
Initially living as a hermit in those mountains, BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh dressed as a dervish and used the name Darvish Muhammad-i-Irani. In Sulaymaniyyih the head of a noted theological seminary happened to meet BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh and invited him to visit. There a student noticed BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh's exquisite penmanship, which raised the curiosity of leading instructors. As he responded to their queries on complex religious themes, BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh quickly gained admiration for his learning and wisdom. Shaykh ûUthmán, Shaykh ûAbdu'r-Rahmán, and Shaykh IsmáüÃÂl, leaders of the NaqshbandÃÂyyih, QádirÃÂyyih, and KhálidÃÂyyih Orders respectively, began to seek his advice. It was to the second of these that BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh's book the Four Valleys was written.
During BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh's absence from the Baghdad Bábàcommunity, Mirza Yahya's true nature became increasingly clear. The public respect and morale of BábÃÂs soon disintegrated as Yahya failed to give spiritual guidance or to demonstrate in daily living the lofty standards taught by the Báb. His actions to discredit BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh, and any who admired him, grew. At the same time Yahya used the BábàFaith to benefit himself materially and to try to augment his delusory standing, employing means towards those ends which shamefully contradicted statements by the Báb. He also engaged in criminal activities, including persuading several followers to murder other BábÃÂs whom Yahya viewed as potential adversaries, or as supporters of such imagined rivals. Yahya even took steps to initiate another attempt to assassinate the Shah of Persia. Yahya's utter failings as a religious leader led most BábÃÂs to reject his claims.
When rumors of a âÂÂsaintâ living in Sulaymaniyyih reached Bábàfriends in Baghdad they suspected it was BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh and asked one of his relatives to locate and beg him to return to help the community. Acceding to their urgent requests, to which Yahya even added an appeal, BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh returned to Baghdad on 19 March 1856.
Over the next 7 years, BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh undertook to transform the Bábàcommunity. Through personal example, as well as encouragement and constant interaction with BábÃÂs, BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh "restored the community to the moral and spiritual level it had attained during the Báb's lifetime". Growing numbers were drawn to join the reinvigorated Bábàmovement. As BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh's renown as a spiritual guide and Bábàleader grew, Mirza Yahya remained withdrawn. The spread of BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh's reputation in Baghdad and surrounding areas, along with increased dissemination of his writings, attracted "[p]rinces, scholars, mystics, and government officials" to meet him, many "prominent in Persian public life." This development unnerved antithetical elements among Iran's Islamic clergy, and again raised the "intense fear and suspicion" of the Iranian monarch and his advisors.
The Persian government asked the Ottoman government to extradite Baháüu'lláh back to Persia, but the latter refused. The Persians then pressed the Ottomans to remove Baháüu'lláh from Baghdad which was near Iran's border. The result was an invitation in April 1863 from Sultan ûAbdu'l-ûAzÃÂz himself inviting Baháüu'lláh to reside in the Ottoman capital Constantinople (now Istanbul).
On 22 April 1863, Baháüu'lláh left his house in Baghdad for the banks of the Tigris River and crossed to enter the verdant Najibiyyih garden-park on the other side, which a Baghdad admirer had offered for his use. There Baháüu'lláh stayed for twelve days with family members and a few close followers chosen to accompany him. Upon arrival in the garden BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh declared to his companions that he was "Him whom God shall make manifest", the one promised by the Báb, and announced that his mission as God's latest manifestation in this world had commenced.
BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh left the Riá¸Âván garden on 3 May 1863 and proceeded with his family to Constantinople as guests of the Ottoman government, accompanied by a mounted government escort arranged for their protection by 'Ali Pasha, the Sultan's prime minister. Other travelers included at least two dozen companions who requested BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh's permission to accompany him. Though not included in the Sultan's invitation, Mirza Yahya joined the group en route. After fifteen weeks BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh arrived in the Ottoman capital on 16 August 1863. He was welcomed by various government ministers of the Sultan, and by prominent personalities who paid their respects. The Persian ambassador also sent emissaries to greet him the day after his arrival.
At the time, it was customary for prominent government guests such as BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh to "call on the prime minister and other high-ranking officials", during which the guests would seek favors, broker deals, and secure various forms of official support for themselves. When BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh did not return any visits, Kamal Pasha, a former Ottoman prime minister, even reminded him of the custom. BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh's response was that he knew of the practice "but had no demands to make of anyone nor did he require favors from them; therefore there was no reason" for him to call upon anyone.
BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh's independence and detachment from the situation was used by the Persian ambassador to maliciously misrepresent BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh before the Ottoman court, and to press for his banishment from the capital. As a consequence, less than four months after arriving in Constantinople, the prime minister suggested the Sultan banish Baháüu'lláh and his companions to Adrianople (now Edirne), which the ruler promptly approved.
On 12 December 1863, Baháüu'lláh arrived in Adrianople with his family and other companions. His presence there, which lasted four and a half years, became a significant period for the further unfoldment of his mission among BábÃÂs, and for the general proclamation of his cause. Over the next two years, writings which flowed from BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh were broadly shared with BábÃÂs in Iran. BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh dispatched several trusted followers to Iran, and most of the BábÃÂs came to recognize him as the leader of their faith.
Emboldened by lack of persecution against BábÃÂs, Mirza Yahya began to appear in public, which coincided with an aggressive stance towards BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh's recent claim. Yahya personally poisoned BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh when he invited him for tea. His doing so caused a severe month-long illness that left BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh with a tremor in his hand for the rest of his life. Though BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh advised those who knew not to speak of what had happened, awareness of the incident grew, giving rise to strong agitation among BábÃÂs. However, it was Yahya's subsequent attempt on BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh's life that brought about "an unprecedented commotion in the community". It involved Ustad Muhammad-âÂÂAliy-i-Salmani, a traditional barber who served as BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh's bath attendant. Salmani reported that Yahya suddenly began to show kindness to him, then one day insinuated it would be "a great service" to their religion if he assassinated BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh while attending to him in the bath. Salmani was so outraged he said his immediate thought was to kill YahyaâÂÂhe hesitated only because he knew doing that would displease BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh. Agitated, he informed BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh's faithful brother Mirza Musa of the incident, who advised him to ignore it, saying Yahya had thought of this for years. Still upset, Salmani told âÂÂAbduâÂÂl-Bahá, BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh's eldest son, about the matter, who told him not to speak of it to others. Salmani finally informed BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh, who likewise said he should not mention it to anyone. Until this incident, because Yahya was a half-brother whom BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh always treated with kindness and care, most in the Bábàcommunity also showed Yahya respect, even if they did not accept his claims to a special religious status. However, when Salmani was unable to keep silent and openly related to others what Yahya had asked of him, Yahya's actions and intentions incited great turmoil amidst the BábÃÂs.
Having given his younger sibling ample guidance and opportunities to live as a Bábàshould, and having repeatedly forgiven him for things he had done in the past, BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh decided the time had come to formally declare to Mirza Yahya that he was God's latest manifestation, the Promised One of the Báb, "Him whom God shall make manifest"âÂÂbecause doing so would require him to obey BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh if Yahya were to remain faithful to the Báb. BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh made that declaration to Yahya in early March 1866 through a tablet penned in BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh's own handwriting and read aloud to Yahya by BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh's amanuensis. Besides unequivocally proclaiming his spiritual station, BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh called upon Yahya "to recognize and support him as the Báb had explicitly instructed him to do." Mirza Yahya's response was to counter that he, not BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh, was the promised manifestation mentioned by the Báb. This step by Yahya promptly resulted in almost all BábÃÂs in Adrianople, who were already devoted to BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh, deciding to have nothing further to do with Yahya or his few supporters. As news of this development reached BábÃÂs in Persia and Iraq, and surviving Bábàmembers of the Báb's family, their response in support of BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh was the same. Mirza Yahya's effort to claim a divine station thus effectively cleaved him from most BábÃÂs, for it was against the Báb's covenant with his followers which decreed that whensoever "Him whom God shall make manifest" announced himself all BábÃÂs were required to accept him. From this time onwards those who understood the Báb's teachings about the Promised One began to call themselves "BaháâÂÂÃÂs" (meaning the people of BaháâÂÂ, followers of BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh).
Having lost all respect or influence among BábÃÂs who had become BaháâÂÂÃÂs, Mirza Yahya again sought to discredit BaháüuâÂÂlláh with Ottoman authorities, accusing him of agitating against the Turkish government. Yahya's actions provoked a government investigation, which cleared BaháüuâÂÂlláhâÂÂbut fearing religious issues might stir up future disorder, the Ottomans decided to imprison both Baháüu'lláh and Mirza Yahya in far-flung outposts of their empire. In July 1868 a royal decree condemned BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh and his family to perpetual imprisonment in the pestilential penal colony of Acre; banished with them were most BaháâÂÂÃÂs in Adrianople, and a handful of Azalis. Mirza Yahya's intrigue also resulted in his own captivityâÂÂbecause Turkish authorities suspected he was involved in some conspiracy, he was sent to prison in Famagusta, Cyprus with his family, some Azalis, and four BaháâÂÂÃÂs.
Leaving Adrianople on 12 August 1868, BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh and his companions arrived in Acre on 31 August where they were incarcerated in the city's prison citadel. Inhabitants of Acre were told the new prisoners were enemies of the state, of God, and his religion, and association with them was strictly forbidden. The first years in âÂÂAkká were under very harsh conditions with many BaháâÂÂÃÂs becoming sick (three eventually died). June 1870 witnessed the tragic death of Baháüu'lláh's 22-year-old son Mirzá Mihdàwho fell through an unguarded skylight as he paced on the roof of the prison one evening while engrossed in prayer and meditation. After a while, relations between BaháâÂÂàprisoners, officials, and the local community improved, so conditions of their imprisonment were eased. When visiting Acre in April 1871, Dr. Thomas Chaplin (director of a British-run hospital in Jerusalem) met with ûAbdu'l-Bahá, on behalf of Baháüu'lláh, in a home the family was living in after being moved out of the citadel. Afterward, the physician sent a letter regarding Baháüu'lláh to the editor of The Times, which was printed on 5 October 1871. Eventually, after the Sultan's death, Baháüu'lláh was allowed to leave the city to visit nearby places, and to then reside in areas outside Acre. From 1877 to 1879, Baháüu'lláh lived in Mazra'ih, a house a few miles north of the prison city.
Though formally still a prisoner of the Ottoman Empire, the final years of Baháüu'lláh's life (1879âÂÂ1892) were spent in the Mansion of BahjÃÂ, just outside Acre. Baháüu'lláh devoted his time to writing numerous volumes detailing his teachings, including his vision for a united world, the need for ethical actions, and many prayers.
In 1890, Cambridge orientalist Edward Granville Browne was able to interview Baháüu'lláh in Bahji. After this meeting he wrote his famous pen-portrait of Baháüu'lláh:
<blockquote>In the corner where the divan met the wall sat a wondrous and venerable figure... The face of him on whom I gazed I can never forget, though I cannot describe it. Those piercing eyes seemed to read one's very soul; power and authority sat on that ample brow... No need to ask in whose presence I stood, as I bowed myself before one who is the object of a devotion and love which kings might envy and emperors sigh for in vain! A mild dignified voice bade me be seated, and then continued:
After a short illness, Baháüu'lláh died on 29 May 1892 in Bahji. He was buried adjacent to the mansion in an existing building which now serves as his shrine. It is a place of pilgrimage for BaháâÂÂÃÂs from all over the world, and is the Qiblih they face for daily obligatory prayers. In 2008 the shrine of BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh, along with other Baháüàholy places in Acre and Haifa, were added to UNESCO's list of World Heritage Sites.
The Baháüàconcept of God is monotheistic. God is a single uncreated imperishable entity that is the absolute and ultimate source of all existence. Baháüu'lláh unequivocally teaches "the existence and oneness of a personal God, unknowable, inaccessible, the source of all Revelation, eternal, omniscient, omnipresent and almighty". BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh asserted that the Creator cannot be grasped by creationâÂÂfor anything made can never comprehend its maker. Nevertheless, Baháüu'lláh said that the Creator bestowed upon humans' capacity to recognize the maker's existence, and the ability to develop spiritually through awareness of God's infinite superlative attributes and by striving to emulate those qualities as best as one can in lifeâÂÂvirtues such as love, mercy, kindness, generosity, justice, etc.
BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh explains human knowledge of God's existence and awareness of the Creator's attributes have beenâÂÂand will forever beâÂÂonly possible to the extent that these are shared by special Beings he and the Báb describe as Manifestations of God. Rather than simply being great thinkers with a better perspective on life than others, manifestations are spiritual entities specially created by God with capacities infinitely superior to ordinary humans. Existing in spiritual realms prior to birth in this physical life, each manifestation is sent by God to a particular period and place as an instrument of divine intervention to help the human race gradually develop its inherent capacities to realize God's plan for humanity.
BaháâÂÂÃÂs believe manifestations reflect the light of God's Will and Purpose in this world. BaháâÂÂàwritings liken manifestations to perfect mirrors reflecting one sunâÂÂthough every mirror is distinct, yet the reflection cast by each is of the same sun, varying only due to differences relating to time and position. BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh says the guidance of manifestations necessarily differ due to the particular situations and requirements of those they deal with:
<blockquote>The Prophets of God should be regarded as physicians whose task is to foster the well-being of the world and its peoples... Little wonder, then, if the treatment prescribed by the physician in this day should not be found to be identical with that which he prescribed before. How could it be otherwise when the ills affecting the sufferer necessitate at every stage of his sickness a special remedy? In like manner, every time the Prophets of God have illumined the world with the resplendent radiance of the Day Star of Divine knowledge, they have invariably summoned its peoples to embrace the light of God through such means as best befitted the exigencies of the age in which they appeared.</blockquote>
BaháâÂÂÃÂs perceive each major world religion as part of one God-ordained holistic educational process which has spiritually and socially enabled human civilization itself to progressâÂÂas people have learned to embrace ever-widening circles of unity which have successively involved ever more diverse families, tribes, city-states, and then nations. Inevitably, the human race must, and will, embrace its final circle of unity, that of the planet itself.
BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh links this "process of progressive revelation" to God's eternal covenantâÂÂthe promise that every divine teacher makes with his followers regarding the next manifestation whom the Creator will send to guide them. Prophecies pertaining to this great covenant are found in scriptures of all religions, with every manifestation prophesying about the next one, and even others, to come. As for their responsibility in this covenant, the followers of each religion have the duty to carefully investigate, with an open mind, whether a person claiming to be the promised new messenger of their faith does, or does not, spiritually fulfill relevant prophecies.
In announcing his claim to be the promised manifestation heralded by the Báb, Baháüu'lláh also declared his station as the Promised One prophesied in every major religion of the pastâÂÂthe divine teacher God vowed to send to usher in humanity's Golden Age. BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh's claim to being several 'messiahs' converging in one person is understood by BaháâÂÂÃÂs as being a spiritual symbolic fulfillment rather than a literal fulfilment of messianic and eschatological prophecies of past faiths. This understanding is based upon BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh's teachings regarding the oneness of God's manifestations, and the essential oneness of religion. Thus, BaháâÂÂÃÂs see BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh as fulfilling prophecies of Jewish, Christian, Islamic, Zoroastrian, Hindu, and Buddhist scriptures.
Baháüu'lláh calls upon every BaháâÂÂàto live a righteous, healthy, productive life, characterized by good manners and moral virtues such as truthfulness, integrity, trustworthiness, patience, courtesy, hospitality, fidelity, purity, chastity, moderation, forbearance, justice and fairness. He encourages believers to associate with those of all faiths in a friendly and loving manner, condemns and forbids all forms of religious violence, including jihad. Baháüu'lláh describes in detail the role of true religion as a deterrent to crime, as a force for the maintenance of social order, and as a catalyst for ongoing personal spiritual development, daily communion with God, and needed self-transformation. Baháüu'lláh forbids asceticism, mendicancy, monasticism, and penance, while affirming the importance of working in some trade or profession to benefit oneself and others. BaháâÂÂÃÂs are urged to be exemplary, honest, loyal and conscientious citizens wherever they may reside, and to eschew pride, strife, slander and backbiting in all circumstances. Baháüu'lláh's core message to his followers is to make every effort to serve humanity, and to collaborate with like-minded individuals in all efforts to advance the process of unifying the world in ways pleasing to God.
Bahá'uâÂÂlláh repeatedly states his message is for all peoples, and that the purpose of his teachings is to build a new world in which humanity advances as a whole. He clearly proclaims the principle of the oneness of mankind, urging heads of state to join in resolving existing disputes to achieve peace and to safeguard it through collective security. To promote the development of a united world community, BahaâÂÂuâÂÂllah emphasizes the importance of eliminating religious and racial prejudices and avoiding extreme nationalism. Further, he stipulates the rights of all minorities must be safeguarded and their development nurtured. A condition described as absolutely necessary for the realization of global peace is complete equality between women and men worldwide. BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh states that in God's sight the sexes are equal; neither is superior to the other. To realize such equality, Baháüàteachings envisage the implementation of far-reaching societal changes everywhereâÂÂincluding mandates to end discriminatory practices against females and greater emphasis on education for girls to ensure women fulfill their potential in all fields of human endeavor.
Baháüu'lláh created an explicit Covenant with BaháâÂÂÃÂs in his will and testament which was written entirely in his own hand and is known as the "Book of My Covenant". It was unsealed and read before witnesses and members of his family on the ninth day after his death in 1892. To provide a single focal point of continued guidance, who could clarify and interpret his writings as needed, in his will Baháüu'lláh entrusted leadership of the BaháâÂÂàFaith to his eldest son ûAbdu'l-Bahá by naming him his successor, the sole authorized interpreter of his writings, the perfect exemplar of his teachings, and the Centre of his Covenant with all BaháüÃÂs. The unambiguous appointment of ûAbdu'l-Bahá was readily accepted by most BaháüÃÂs as a natural development, since for decades prior to Baháüu'lláh's death âÂÂAbduâÂÂl-Bahá was known for the extremely capable and devoted ways in which he carried out responsibilities entrusted to him by Baháüu'lláh, and for the unrestrained praise his father showered upon him for his services.
The Covenant of BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh explicitly conveyed "authority for the establishment of an institutional system designed to guide, protect, and enlarge the emerging BaháâÂÂàcommunity." BaháâÂÂÃÂs believe BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh's Covenant is the distinguishing feature of his Faith that preserves its unity and protects it from breaking into sects, as happened in older world religions after the deaths of their founders. To this day the BaháâÂÂàFaith remains undivided.
Affairs of BaháâÂÂàcommunities are administered, in most countries, using BaháâÂÂàprinciples of consultation and collective decision-making. As there is no clergy in the BaháâÂÂàFaith, no individual BaháâÂÂàhas the authority to tell another how to think or what to do. BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh strongly encouraged personal initiative among BaháâÂÂÃÂs in sharing his teachings but forbade proselytizing. Working in groups and community engagement are also considered important aspects of BaháâÂÂàlife. When requested or needed, individual and group efforts, and BaháâÂÂàcommunity activities in general are coordinated, guided, and supported by nine-member councils (elected annually by secret ballot) operating at local, regional, and national levels. Additional encouragement and spiritual guidance is provided by appointed individuals who do not have executive powers. BaháâÂÂàprojects are wholly supported by funds voluntarily given by BaháâÂÂÃÂs, as the BaháâÂÂàFaith does not accept contributions from those who are not declared members. BaháâÂÂàcouncil members, as well as anyone appointed by them to assist with various community's activities (such as for moral education classes for children and junior youth), serve voluntarily. The BaháâÂÂàadministrative order is headed by the Universal House of Justice, the institution ordained and given authority for this purpose by BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh in his Book of Laws; this world governing council is elected by BaháâÂÂÃÂs from around the world every five years at an international gathering held at the BaháüàWorld Centre.
BaháâÂÂÃÂs consider all BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh's writings as divinely revealed, including those composed before he announced his prophetic mission. When revelation was said to come to BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh, he occasionally wrote it down himself but typically spoke the words aloud to an amanuensis. At times he spoke so quickly that it presented challenges for those recording his words. The majority of BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh's writings take the form of short letters, or tablets, addressed to an individual or several persons. Among his larger works are the Hidden Words, the Seven Valleys, the Book of Certitude (Kitáb-i-ÃÂqán), the Kitáb-i-Aqdas (Most Holy Book), and the Epistle to the Son of the Wolf. The originals of Baháüu'lláh's writings are in Persian and Arabic. His body of work is equivalent to more than 100 volumesâÂÂsome 15,000 items have been identified and authenticated.
Topics in his works are extensive and cover material, social, moral, and spiritual principles relevant to human life, both for individuals and groups. Categories include commentary on scriptures, prophecies, and beliefs of former religions; abrogation of past laws, and enunciation of laws and ordinances for this new dispensation; mystical writings; claimed proofs and explanations about God; statements relating to God's creation of human souls as noble entities capable of knowing the Creator exists and able to reflect all Its virtues; claimed proofs of life after death and descriptions of how souls progress for eternity in endless divine realms; exaltation of work performed in a spirit of service to the status of worship; explications on just governance and on creating unity and world order; expositions on knowledge, philosophy, alchemy, medicine and healthy living; spiritual principles underlying social teachings; calls for universal education; and living virtuously and in harmony with God's Will. BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh also explores theodicy, and reasons for difficulties in this life; and he wrote numerous prayers and meditations.
BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh wrote a series of letters addressed individually and collectively to monarchs, political rulers, and clerical leaders, in which he claimed to be the Promised One of the Torah, the Gospels, and the QurâÂÂan. He asked them to accept his revelation, renounce their material possessions, rule with justice, protect the rights of the downtrodden, reduce their armaments, reconcile their differences, and collectively strive for the betterment of the world and the unification of its peoples. He warned that the world of that period was ending and that a global civilization was being born. BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh further asserted that inexorable historical forces were in motion and that rulers should use the powers entrusted to them by God to serve humanity and bring about justice, peace, and unity.
In these letters BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh also prescribed ways to develop a sense of community for the planet's peoples through collaborative endeavors such as creating an international auxiliary language, universal compulsory public education, and a common global currency and system of measurement; even as he urged rulers to dramatically curtail military spending, create an international tribunal to adjudicate disputes between nations, use taxes for social benefits, and adhere to principles of democracy in their internal affairs. To religious leaders, BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh counseled them to seriously examine his cause without prejudice, forswear secular leadership, renounce dogma, embrace ecumenical outreach, and eliminate meaningless rituals; while advising monks to avoid cloistering, to mingle with people and engage in beneficial community services, and to marry.
The first of these missives was written in 1863 in Constantinople to Sultan ûAbduâÂÂl-ûAzÃÂz, upon receipt of his order banishing BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh to Adrianople; others were written in Adrianople, and in Acre. In all, the following were addressed: Czar Alexander II of Russia; Francis Joseph I of Austria-Hungary; Napoleon III of France; NasiriâÂÂd-Din Shah of Persia; Pope Pius IX; and Queen Victoria of Great Britain and Ireland; Ottoman Sultan ûAbduâÂÂl-ûAzÃÂz; Wilhelm I of Prussia; the rulers and presidents of the republics of America; elected representatives of peoples in every land; and leaders of religion. While little meaningful response was received from those written to, afterwards BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh's letters did attract considerable attention (and even notable converts to his cause) for "the startling fulfillment of the individual prophecies they contained" warning Napoleon, the Pope, Kaiser Wilhelm, the Czar, Emperor Francis Joseph, the Shah, the Sultan, and the latter's prime minister and foreign minister, of their downfalls, loss of territories, or other divine chastisement for failure to heed his advice or for wrongs they had committed.
Author Christopher de Bellaigue wrote of the letters:
BaháâÂÂu'lláh describes each manifestation as having a twofold nature, one relating to God, the other to this material world. Moreover, each has a "double station"âÂÂthe first relates to his "innermost reality" in which he speaks with "the voice of God", while the second station is his human side. He says all manifestations, as "channels of God's all-pervasive grace", are unfailingly guided by the Creator to use "the inspiration of Their words" to affect human hearts and souls, so that open-minded individuals will grasp the truths being given.
The "voice" in BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh's writings varies depending upon the themes or topics covered, the specific backgrounds of their intended recipients, or particular questions which individuals asked of him. In many writings BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh speaks as a caring counselor or friend sharing with another; in others it is someone conveying what the manifestation asked him to pass on; in some it is as if God is speaking in the first person; and in still others it is a lowly one speaking with profound humility before GodâÂÂin absolute servitude and self-effacement.
In BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh's writings, voice may change from one form to another within a single text, or take the form of a conversationâÂÂas seen in the dialogue between BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh and God guiding him as His manifestation in the Fire Tablet, or in the Tablet of Carmel in which Mt. Carmel and BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh as God's manifestation converse. In whatever style or voice a manifestation expresses himself, the aim is always to share spiritual truths. Shoghi Effendi, who was later appointed as the interpreter of Baháüu'lláh's writings, gives the following statement of BaháâÂÂàbelief on this matter:
The Bahá'àWorld Centre has ongoing efforts to ensure that BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh's original writings are collected, authenticated, catalogued, and preserved. Through an ongoing global program of translation BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh's writings currently are available in more than 800 languages.