Alexander II (Medieval Gaelic: '; Modern Gaelic: ') (1198âÂÂ1249) was King of Scotland from 1214 until his death. He was the son of William the Lion and Ermengarde de Beaumont, succeeding to the throne at the age of sixteen. He ruled for thirty-five years, during which time he began consolidating the Scottish kingdom. AlexanderâÂÂs early reign was marked by conflict with John of England and his involvement in the First Barons' War. He supported the rebel English barons and campaigned mainly in northern England. Following JohnâÂÂs death in 1216, Alexander made peace with John's son and successor, Henry III of England, taking a more diplomatic approach between the two kingdoms. This was strengthened by his marriage in 1221 to Joan of England.
Within Scotland, Alexander worked to reinforce his authority across a politically unconsolidated Kingdom. He eliminated repeated rebellions in Ross and Moray in the north, and in Galloway in the southwest, including the final destruction of the MacWilliam line. He extended royal control into regions where his predecessors could only exercise limited influence. Alexander extended his interventions on the western seaboard, confronting Norse-influenced lords in Argyll and the Hebrides. His dealings with England remained central to his rule. In 1237, he concluded the Treaty of York with Henry III, which settled border issues and defined the Anglo-Scottish border in largely enduring terms.
His second marriage, to the French noblewoman Marie de Coucy in 1239, aided ScotlandâÂÂs continental connections. In his later years, Alexander sought to extend his influence in the west, ending in a campaign against Norse possessions in the Hebrides. His intentions were cut short when he died on the island of Kerrera in 1249. He was succeeded by his seven-year-old son, Alexander III of Scotland. Alexander IIâÂÂs reign was important in the development of a more unified and territorially defined Scottish kingdom.
Alexander, son of King William the Lion and Ermengarde de Beaumont, was born on 24 August 1198 at Haddington in Lothian.. He descended directly from (Malcolm III). Malcolm was the first of the so-called Canmore line of kings and married twice. His first marriage, to the Norse noblewoman Ingibjërg Finnsdóttir (d. before 1068), produced a son, Donnchad mac Máel Coluim (Duncan II). The pretenders, the meic Uilleim (MacWilliams), stemmed from Duncan's line. Alexander's descent was from Malcolm's second marriage to Margaret of Wessex, an English princess, who produced six sons and two daughters. Of the sons, three became kings, but only the youngest, David I, had a legitimate heirâÂÂHenry, Earl of Huntingdon. Henry died before his father but left two legitimate sons who succeeded him as Malcolm IV, who died childless, and William the Lion. By the time of Alexander's birth, succession by direct descent of the firstborn male, primogeniture, appeared to have been settled. Even King William's predecessor, his brother MalcolmâÂÂa twelve-year-old minorâÂÂhad succeeded to the throne without difficulty. <div style="float:right; width:25em; min-height:20em; border:1.5px solid #000; background:#e5e5e5; color:#222; padding:0.6em; margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em; font-size:90%;"> <div style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold; font-size:110%; margin-bottom:0.3em; color:#111;"> The Canmore kings to Alexander II </div>
</div> Yet William appears to have had doubts about AlexanderâÂÂs eventual succession. The reasons are unclear, though the instability created by the English succession crisis between Arthur of Brittany and John of England may have influenced his thinking. Consequently, at a council of nobles on 12 October 1201, he secured their support to recognise the threeâÂÂyearâÂÂold Alexander as heir. This sidelined William's younger brother, Earl David of Huntingdon, who had been heir presumptive since 1165. Notably absent from the council, David did not acknowledge Alexander as heir until 1205.
Anglo-Scottish relations deteriorated sharply in the spring of 1209. Talks originally scheduled for Newcastle were instead held at Norham Castle on the English bank of the River Tweed, ending without agreement on 23 April. By late July, both William and John, King of England, mustered their armies at Norham, each believing the other had acted provocatively. A contemporary Scottish source provided an estimate of JohnâÂÂs forces, revealing the scale of his intimidating military display.
The treaty that was concluded on 7 August 1209 was highly unfavourable to Scotland. So much so that William tried to conceal some of its provisions; it required him to reaffirm his homage to King John for his English lands, to pay 15,000 marks, and to deliver highâÂÂranking hostages. Alexander, approaching his eleventh birthday, was compelled to give homage to John, not only for his eventual inheritance of English lands but for his future kingdom—an acknowledgement of John as his overlord. Its terms also made clear that Margaret and Isabella, WilliamâÂÂs daughters, were already in JohnâÂÂs charge and were to be provided for in a future marriage arrangement with John's two young sons. The prospective marriages involved various scenarios depending on the sisters' and the brothers' survivability. The daughters' status was ambiguous; despite their doubtless good treatment at John's court, they were effectively 'quasi-hostages', with no freedom of movement. Between 1212 and 1214, the sisters are recorded travelling with the royal court, on occasion in the company of the queen, Isabella of Angoulême, and sometimes with Eleanor of Brittany, who was also being held similarly.
In January 1211, the twelve-year-old Alexander witnessed the second MacWilliam (Meic Uilleim) rebellion led by Guthred, the son of Domnall (Donald), the original dissenter. Although his forces fragmented by the autumn, Guthred himself evaded capture. As the rebellion entered its second year, William struggled to contain the uprising, perhaps raising fears regarding AlexanderâÂÂs succession.
This ongoing instability and William's apparent inability to resolve it were likely the reasons for his need for John's assistance. In response, John's harsh terms resulted in the humiliating treaty of 8 February 1212, which significantly strengthened JohnâÂÂs dominance over the Scottish king. The agreement required that Alexander would marry only at JohnâÂÂs discretion; it also stated that both William and Alexander had acknowledged John and his heir, Henry, as their overlords. Scotland was now a vassal kingdom. William had thus conceded to John the right of marriage provision for three out of four of his legitimate children. While the treaty omitted a specific mention of JohnâÂÂs daughter, Joan, it may have been understood that she would eventually be Alexander's future wife. As required in the ratified treaty, Alexander travelled to London and was knighted along with thirteen Scottish nobles at Clerkenwell Priory on 4 March 1212. Alexander returned to Scotland with an escort of JohnâÂÂs mercenaries to join the hunt for Guthred MacWilliam. Ultimately, the rebellion ended when Guthred was betrayed by his own followers and delivered to Alexander at Kincardine Castle, where he was executed.
By early 1213, Alexander had been introduced into royal government, witnessing charters and attending council meetings. In the summer of 1214, the ageing and increasingly infirm King William travelled north to secure the loyalty of Jón, Earl of Caithness, taking the earlâÂÂs daughter as a hostage. His return south from Elgin was both slow and arduous, and by early September, he was unable to travel beyond Stirling Castle. Before William died on 4 December, the kingdomâÂÂs leading nobles reaffirmed Alexander as heir. The next day, accompanied by seven earls and Bishop Malveisin of St Andrews, Alexander proceeded to Scone, where he was inaugurated. WilliamâÂÂs body, escorted by senior clergy and the queen, was taken to Perth and then to Arbroath Abbey, where he was buried before the high altar on 10 December.
For Alexander, just a few months past his sixteenth birthday, a minority kingship was not considered. He immediately summoned a great court at Edinburgh to take oaths of fealty and to reconfirm his fatherâÂÂs principal officers in their roles. Although his realm nominally stretched from the Pentland Firth to the Solway Firth, he inherited a loosely integrated kingdom in which effective royal authority was strongest in the southeast but weak elsewhere. The western and northern seaboards bordered the Norwegian kingâÂÂs island dominions from Man to Shetland, where powerful regional lords operated with considerable autonomy. Against this backdrop, discontent at AlexanderâÂÂs accession encouraged the MacWilliam line to revive its claim to the throne.
<div style="float:right; width:25em; min-height:25em; border:1.5px solid #000; background:#e5e5e5; color:#222; padding:0.4em; margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em; font-size:90%;"> <div style="text-align:center; font-weight:bold; font-size:110%; margin-bottom:0.3em; color:#111;"> The Canmore lineage of the MacWilliams </div>
<div style="margin-top:1em; font-size:95%; line-height:1.4;"> Gillescop was the son of either Guthred or Donald bÃÂ n. He and his two sons were killed in c.1230 by William Comyn. Gillescop's infant daughter was killed at the market cross of Forfar. </div> </div>
Máel Coluim mac Donnchada (Malcolm III) and his first wife, Ingibjërg, widow of Earl Thorfinn of Orkney, had at least two sons: Donnchad mac Máel Coluim (Duncan II) and Domnall (Donald). Little is known of this Donald, who died in 1085. The deaths of Malcolm III, his eldest son Edward of the second marriage, and Queen Margaret, all within days in November 1093, left the Scottish throne vacant. Duncan, long absent in England, initially as a hostage, was bypassed in favour of MalcolmâÂÂs brother Donald III. With support from William Rufus, Duncan invaded, briefly ruled, but alienated his followers by relying on English and Norman retainers. Donald, aided by Edmund, MargaretâÂÂs eldest surviving son, took the throne following Duncan's murder. Edgar, another of MargaretâÂÂs sons, then seized the crown, executed Donald, and exiled Edmund.
Duncan IIâÂÂs son, William fitz Duncan, was excluded from the succession due to his minority, though primogeniture would have favoured him. Before marrying Alice de Rumelli, he fathered Domnall mac Uilleim (Donald MacWilliam) with an unknown Gaelic woman. Domnall became the first MacWilliam rebel.
The crown passed through MargaretâÂÂs sons to David I in 1124. William fitz Duncan, now an adult, was likely recognised as David's heir under Tánaiste principles. Yet, he remained loyal even after DavidâÂÂs son, Henry, was styled Rex Designatus around 1141. Henry's death led to the reigns of Malcolm IV (1153) and William I (1165). The first meic Uilleim rising emerged by 1179, during William's reign and ended with the death of Donald MacWilliam in 1187. By then, the MacWilliams held significant support in Ross, Moray, and Ireland, and by 1187, some magnates considered replacing William I with a MacWilliam claimant.
Alexander II was twelve when the second uprising began in 1211, led by DonaldâÂÂs son Guthred. Shortly after Alexander's accession, Donald Bán and Kenneth MacHeth launched another rebellion in 1215. This was swiftly quashed by the Ross leader Fercher mac an tSacairt (Farquhar MacTaggart). On 15 June 1215, MacTaggart presented the rebels' severed heads to the King. This intervention demonstrated the effectiveness of the security measures put in place by King William, which included the establishment of strategic lordships and castles from Inverness to Sutherland. These defenses, combined with the 1214 agreement with Jón, Earl of Caithness, largely stabilized the region.
The final MacWilliam rebellion erupted in 1228, when Gillescop burned Abertarff Castle and killed its governor before advancing on Inverness. Alexander II appointed William Comyn, Earl of Buchan, to end the revolt. Gillescop and his sons were killed by 1229/30. The line ended in the winter of 1230 with the execution at Forfar of GillescopâÂÂs infant daughter, the last known member of the MacWilliam line.
In early spring 1215, Alexander received representatives from disaffected English barons, including Eustace de Vescy, his brotherâÂÂinâÂÂlaw with lands in Fife and Lothian, and Saher de Quincy, Earl of Winchester. Around this time, Eustace de Vescy and Robert de RosâÂÂboth married to AlexanderâÂÂs illegitimate sistersâÂÂrenounced loyalty to King John, as did most northern barons. The MacWilliam rebellion remained unresolved when civil war erupted in England in early May. Alexander, an English baron through his Tynedale holdings, adopted a cautious stance, weighing gains from either faction. A truce was arranged before the end of May. On 15 June, the day Alexander received the rebelsâ heads, John sealed the Articles that became the Magna Carta. Clause 59 addressed grievances concerning AlexanderâÂÂs sisters and hostages held since the 1209 Norham treaty.
On 7 July, Alexander sent Bishop William de Malveisin of St Andrews and five laymen to JohnâÂÂs court to pursue the issues raised in Clause 59. They met John at Oxford in midâÂÂJuly; although the hostages were likely released, no further progress followed. On 5 September, Innocent IIIâÂÂs commissioners excommunicated leading rebels and placed their lands under interdict. Fighting resumed, and John, backed by the Pope, retracted support for the Magna Carta, nullifying AlexanderâÂÂs gains. The barons, seeking his support, offered him Cumberland, Westmorland, and NorthumberlandâÂÂterritories long sought by his father. With his interests lost, Alexander crossed the Tweed on 19 October to blockade Norham Castle. After forty days the siege was abandoned. With winter approaching, he moved south to Newcastle, bypassed its castle, and razed the town.
Provoked, John assembled Brabantian mercenaries and launched a swift winter campaign. By 4 January 1216, he reached York and captured several northern castles by 10 January. He progressed rapidly, causing the northern barons to flee into Scotland. There, they met Alexander at Melrose on 11 January and gave homage and pledges. By 15 January, John had taken Berwick and its castle, ravaged Lothian, destroyed Dunbar, Haddington, and Roxburgh. Returning to Berwick, he razed the town before retreating across the border by 25 January. His retreat was likely prompted by AlexanderâÂÂs army assembling near Edinburgh. John had failed to dislodge AlexanderâÂÂmocked as the little red foxâÂÂor to force him to abandon the barons. Alexander pursued him to Swaledale, then returned via the Stainmore pass across the Pennines toward Carlisle but did not attempt entry. His army moved toward the Solway fords, where some Scots, apparently against orders, pillaged Holme Cultram Abbey, a Melrose colonyâÂÂan act not repeated in his summer campaign.
On 20 May 1216, papal legate Guala Bicchieri arrived to support John. The next day, Prince Louis of France landed in Kent at the baronsâ invitation. By the end of the month, Bicchieri had excommunicated Louis and his allies. Louisâ arrival coincided with Alexander's resumption of campaigning by returning to the siege of Carlisle in July. The town fell on 8 August, the castle by December. Soon after, Alexander left Carlisle to rendezvous with Louis. Crossing the Pennines, they briefly clashed with the holders of Bernard Castle before continuing south. Details of their rapid march are unknown, other than passing near Lincoln, where allied barons were besieging the castle. After passing close to London, they joined Louis at Canterbury shortly after 8 September and travelled to Dover, where Louisâ forces were sieging the castle. There, Alexander paid homage to Louis, perhaps for Lothian and the northern counties. Alexander left for the north around early October. Meanwhile, John prepared measures to block his escape. On 19 October, AlexanderâÂÂs forces broke through; however, that same day, John died of dysentery, a pivotal event that shifted the war.
Many rebel barons now made peace with JohnâÂÂs heir, Henry III. In November 1216, Bicchieri placed Scotland under interdict. In September, Louis made peace with Henry and returned to France. In December 1217 at Berwick, Alexander agreed to surrender Carlisle in exchange for absolution. Henry received him at Northampton around 19 December, accepting his submission and homage for Tynedale and Huntingdon. The removal of papal sanctions on Scotland began in early 1218.
<div style="float: right; clear: right; width: 63em; margin: 0 0 15px 15px; border: 1.5px solid black; background-color: #E9ECEE; padding: 15px; font-size: 80%; line-height: 1.5em; text-align: justify; display: block;" ><div style="text-align: center; font-weight: bold; margin-bottom: 10px; background-color: #E9ECEE;" ><span style="font-size: 1.25em; background-color: #E9ECEE;">Treaty of York (1237)</span> </div><span style="background-color: #E9ECEE;">The formal title of this agreement was: <i>Scriptum cirographatum inter Henricum Regem Anglie et Alexandrum Regem Scocie de comitatu Northumbrie Cumbrie et Westmerland.</i> Translatedâ "A chirograph [an indented agreement] between Henry, King of England, and Alexander, King of Scotland, concerning the counties of Northumberland, Cumberland, and Westmorland."<br /><br />This established the agreement's primary purposeâÂÂAlexander's unequivocal quitclaim of the three shires. The agreement became known in later scholarship as the <b>Treaty of York</b>. The key provisions are summarised below.<br /><br /><b>Renunciations and revocations given by King Alexander to King Henry:</b></span><ul style="margin-top: 5px; margin-bottom: 10px; padding-left: 2em; background-color: #E9ECEE;" ><li style="background-color: #E9ECEE;">Alexander, King of Scots, formally renounces all claims to the counties of Northumberland, Cumberland, and Westmorland.</li><li style="background-color: #E9ECEE;">He also renounces the claim of repayment of the 15,000 marks previously paid by his father, King William, to King John of England for conventions that were not honoured.</li><li style="background-color: #E9ECEE;">All prior marriage arrangements between members of the English and Scottish royal families are revoked.</li></ul><span style="background-color: #E9ECEE;"><b>Reciprocal grants given by King Henry to King Alexander:</b></span><ul style="margin-top: 5px; margin-bottom: 10px; padding-left: 2em; background-color: #E9ECEE;" ><li style="background-color: #E9ECEE;">200 <i>librates</i> worth of land within Northumberland and Cumberland. These lands are to be held by the Scottish crown in perpetuity.</li><li style="background-color: #E9ECEE;">An annual symbolic payment of a single <b>one-year-old goshawk</b> is to be delivered to Carlisle.</li><li style="background-color: #E9ECEE;">The Scottish King and his heirs are granted extensive liberties over these lands, including:<ul style="margin-top: 5px; margin-bottom: 5px; padding-left: 2em; background-color: #E9ECEE;" ><li style="background-color: #E9ECEE;">Full jurisdiction over criminal and civil pleas, with certain cases deferred to English Justices itinerant.</li><li style="background-color: #E9ECEE;">Exemption from a wide array of English taxes, levies, fines and obligations (e.g. scutage, danegeld, castle works).</li><li style="background-color: #E9ECEE;">Rights to stray livestock unless ownership is proven.</li><li style="background-color: #E9ECEE;">Immunity from summonses or legal proceedings outside the granted counties.</li><li style="background-color: #E9ECEE;">English foresters may not enter the lands except for forest pleas; crown pleas are handled jointly by English officials and the Scottish steward.</li></ul></li></ul><span style="background-color: #E9ECEE;">The Scottish King may not pardon criminals or restore forfeited lands, but all other revenues remain with the Scottish crown. The King of England guarantees the defence of the Scottish KingâÂÂs title. The Scottish King performs homage and fealty for them, but is not to be summoned to English courts over disputes concerning them.</span></div>
The Bonds between the Scottish and English courts began to unravel in 1232 with the fall of Alexander's powerful brother-in-law, Hubert de Burgh. Henry eagerly agreed to the marriage of Alexander's youngest sister, Margaret, to Gilbert the Marshall in 1235âÂÂthis was the Margaret that Henry himself had agreed to marry in 1231. Following the marriage, Gilbert left Henry's court, seldom to return. In 1234, Alexander sought full implementation of the English requirements of the 1209 treaty. This prompted Henry to remind the papacy of English claims of overlordship and the contents of the treaties of 1174 and 1209/1212. Pope Gregory IX responded early in 1235, upheld Henry's claim, and directed Alexander to pay homage to the English king as his overlord. Alexander ignored this and returned to the unresolved issues over the three northern shires and the breaches of the 1209 and 1231 agreements regarding the marriage arrangements for his eldest and youngest sisters. A meeting of the joint courts held at Newcastle in September 1236 was fruitless, heightening Henry's fears of a Scottish attack in northern England.
Otto de Tonengo, the pope's legate, brought the kings together at York in September 1237, and a treaty was quickly concluded. Alexander formally relinquished all territorial claims to Northumberland, Cumberland, and Westmorland, and waived any demand for repayment of the 15,000 marks previously paid by his father, King William, to King John of England for unfulfilled agreements. As well as that, all prior matrimonial arrangements between the English and Scottish royal familiesâÂÂspecifically, those concerning Henry, his brother Richard, Margaret, Isabella, and MarjoryâÂÂwere set aside.
Alexander was given lordships in Cumberland and Northumberland worth ã200 annuallyâÂÂcomparable to a small baronyâÂÂalthough this wasn't implemented until 1242. However, they came with far-reaching privileges allowing them to function almost as autonomous entities outside of English laws. In return, Alexander set aside all claims over the northern counties, but crucially, claims of overlordship had been dropped. With the ambiguity of the Northern counties now settled, the position of the border between the two countries could now be agreedâÂÂthis may have been achieved in 1249, leaving only small pockets of land in contention. This laid the foundation of an unprecedented, uninterrupted peace that began in 1217 and lasted beyond Alexander's son's death in 1286, to 1296. Queen Joan died on 4 March 1238, and Alexander remarried in May 1239 to Marie de Coucy, daughter of a prominent French noble. The marriage sparked English concerns about a potential alliance between Alexander and Louis IX, bringing the kingdoms to the edge of war in 1244. The situation was resolved when both kings met at Newcastle on 14 August 1244. The resulting treaty outlined Alexander's pledge to refrain from future hostilities against Henry, except in defence of Scottish interests. Additionally, it was agreed that Alexander's son, also named Alexander, would eventually marry Henry's first-born daughter, Margaret.
<br> <br> <br>