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List of kingdoms and empires in African history

There were many kingdoms and empires in all regions of the continent of Africa throughout history. A kingdom is a state with a king or queen as its head. An empire is a political unit made up of several territories, military outposts, and peoples, "usually created by conquest, and divided between a dominant centre and subordinate peripheries".

In Africa states emerged in a process covering many generations and centuries. Most states were created through conquest or the borrowing and assimilation of ideas and institutions, while some developed through internal, largely isolated development. Economic development "gave rise to a perceived need for centralized institutions and 'territorial' leadership that transcended older bonds of kinship and community". The politicoreligious struggle between the people and the king sometimes saw the people victorious and the establishment of sacred kings with little political power (termed "adverse sacralisation"), contrasted with divine kings equated to gods. Kings and queens used both "instrumental power", the employment of direct influence to achieve a desired outcome, and "creative power", the use of ritual and mythology.

Despite this, popular understanding often claims that the continent lacked large states or meaningful complex political organisation. Whether rooted in ignorance, Eurocentrism, or racism, famous historians such as Hugh Trevor-Roper have argued that African history is not characterised by state formation or hierarchical structures. In fact, the nature of political organisation varied greatly across the continent, from the expansive West Sudanic empires, to the sacral Congolese empires akin to confederations or commonwealths, and the immensely hierarchical kingdoms of the Great Lakes.

The vast majority of states included in this list existed prior to the Scramble for Africa (c. 1880–1914) when, driven by the Second Industrial Revolution, European powers rapidly invaded, conquered, and colonised Africa. While most states were conquered and dissolved, some kings and elites negotiated the terms of colonial rule, and traditional power structures were incorporated into the colonial regimes as a form of indirect rule.

In the mid-late 20th century decolonisation saw Africans inherit the former colonies, and many traditional kingdoms still exist today as non–sovereign monarchies. The roles, powers, and influence of traditional monarchs throughout Africa varies greatly depending on the state. In some states, such as Angola, the local monarch may play an integral role in the local governing council of a region. On the flipside their powers may be curtailed, as happened in 2022 with Wadai in Chad, or their positions abolished, as happened in Tanzania in 1962, and in 1966 in Uganda with Buganda, which was later restored in 1993. In this list they are labelled (NSM).

There are only three current sovereign monarchies in Africa; two of which (Lesotho and Morocco) are constitutional monarchies where the rulers are bound by laws and customs in the exercise of their powers, while one (Eswatini) is an absolute monarchy where the monarch rules without bounds. Sovereign monarchies are labelled (SM).

There have been a number of autocratic presidents in Africa who have been characterised as "disguised monarchs" due to the absence of term limits, as well as those who have invoked hereditary succession in order to preserve their regimes, such as the Bongos of Gabon, Gnassingbés of Togo, or Aptidon and Guelleh of Djibouti, attracting the terms monarchical republic and presidential monarchism. These haven't been included.

Criteria for inclusion

Only polities that were once independent and described as kingdoms or empires by are included. The intercontinental Islamic empires that covered parts of North and Northeast Africa are not included, and should be discussed as part of the Muslim world, however the residual fragments that had their capital on the continent of Africa are.

Oral traditions rarely incorporate chronological devices, and dates in this list are often estimates based on lists of rulers. Dates have [one date for loss of independence] / [one date for loss of nominal rule]. Additional information such as notable articles may accompany entries.

Comparison between kingdoms

Historian Jan Vansina (1962) discusses the classification of Sub–Saharan African Kingdoms, mostly of Central, South and East Africa, with some additional data on West African (Sahelian) Kingdoms distinguishing five types, by decreasing centralization of power:

  1. Despotic Kingdoms: Kingdoms where the king controlled the internal and external affairs directly and personally appointed overseers. The king kept a monopoly on the use of force. Examples include Rwanda, Nkore/Ankole, and Kongo of the 16th century.
  2. Regal Kingdoms: Kingdoms where the king controlled the external affairs directly, and the internal affairs via a system of overseers where most local chiefs kept their positions but not their autonomy after conquest. The king and most of his administration belonged to the same religion, group and/or family.
  3. Incorporative Kingdoms: Kingdoms where the king only controlled the external affairs and the nucleus with no permanent administrative links between him and the chiefs of the provinces. The local chiefs of the provinces were left largely undisturbed after conquest. Examples are the Bamileke, Luba and the Lozi.
  4. Aristocratic Kingdoms: The only link between central authority and the provinces was payment of tribute which symbolised subordination. These kingdoms were kept together by the superior military strength of the nucleus. This type is rather common in Africa, examples include Kongo of the 17th century, Kazembe, Kuba, the Ha, and Chagga states of the 18th century.
  5. Federations: Kingdoms where the external affairs were regulated by a council of elders headed by the king, who is simply primus inter pares, such as in the Ashanti Union. (Confederations are not included; see "List of confederations")

North Africa

A non-exhaustive list of kingdoms and empires in North Africa that we have record of:

4th millennium BCE – 6th century CE

7th century – 12th century CE

13th century – 18th century CE

19th century CE – present

East Africa

A non-exhaustive list of kingdoms and empires in East Africa that we have record of:

4th millennium BCE – 6th century CE

7th century – 12th century CE

13th century – 18th century CE

19th century CE – present

West Africa

A non-exhaustive list of kingdoms and empires in West Africa that we have record of:

4th millennium BCE – 6th century CE

7th century – 12th century CE

13th century – 18th century CE

19th century CE – present

Central Africa

A non-exhaustive list of kingdoms and empires in Central Africa that we have record of:

7th century – 12th century CE

13th century – 18th century CE

19th century CE – present

Southern Africa

A non-exhaustive list of kingdoms and empires in Southern Africa that we have record of:

7th century – 12th century CE

  • Toutswe (10th century13th century CE)
  • Mapela (1055–1400 CE)

13th century – 18th century CE

19th century CE – present

See also

Notes

Further reading

References