In Adyghe, like all Northwest Caucasian languages, the verb is the most inflected part of speech. Verbs are typically head final and are conjugated for tense, person, number, etc. Some of Circassian verbs can be morphologically simple, some of them consist only of one morpheme, like: "go", "take". However, generally, Circassian verbs are characterized as structurally and semantically difficult entities. Morphological structure of a Circassian verb includes affixes (prefixes, suffixes) which are specific to the language. Verbal affixes express meaning of subject, direct or indirect object, adverbial, singular or plural form, negative form, mood, direction, mutuality, compatibility and reflexivity, which, as a result, creates a complex verb, that consists of many morphemes and semantically expresses a sentence. For example: "I am forcing you to talk to them again" consists of the following morphemes: , with the following meanings: "you () with them () from there () together () I () am forcing () to speak () again ()".
Color Legend for Arguments:
The verbal word in Adyghe consists of both prefixes and suffixes. The structure is rigidly organized into specific "slots" or positions relative to the root.
The arguments of the verb are cross-referenced in the prefixal part of the verb form. The elements cross-referenced include the <span style="color:green">Absolutive</span> argument and most participants expressed by the <span style="color:red">Oblique</span> form.
The overall structure of the Adyghe verbal complex is shown below:
The conjugation of the intransitive monovalent verb ÿûÃÂÃÂý /pìan/ "to look". The subject is <span style="color:green">Absolutive</span>.
The conjugation of the intransitive bivalent verb /japìÃÂn/ "to look at". The subject is <span style="color:green">Absolutive</span>, the object is <span style="color:red">Oblique</span>.
The conjugation of the intransitive bivalent verb "looked at". The subject is <span style="color:green">Absolutive</span>, the object is <span style="color:red">Oblique</span>.
The conjugation of the transitive bivalent verb /ÃÂìaÃÂ÷ÃÂn/ "to see it". The subject is <span style="color:purple">Ergative</span>, the object is <span style="color:green">Absolutive</span>.
Note on dialectal variations: In the official Adyghe literary language, the 2nd person singular ergative prefix (Subject "You") is strictly -þ-. However, many other Circassian dialects allow both -þ- and -ñÃÂ-. The form -ñÃÂ- is an exception in that it cannot start a verb; it is only allowed in the middle of a word (e.g., when preceded by another prefix like an object or directional marker).
Examples of dialectal variation:
The conjugation of the transitive bivalent verb "saw". In transitive verbs, the subject is <span style="color:red">Ergative / Oblique</span> and the object is <span style="color:green">Absolutive</span>.
Adyghe verbs are categorized into two main aspectual classes: dynamic and stative (also called static or steady-state). This distinction is fundamental to Circassian grammar, as it influences verb conjugation and the prefixes used.
To understand the difference, consider the concept of "standing":
Dynamic verbs typically use the dynamic prefixes (such as üÃÂ- /ma/ in the 3rd person or ÃÂÃÂ- /sa/ in the 1st person) in the present tense.
Stative verbs usually mark the subject with absolutive prefixes (ÃÂÃÂ- /sÃÂ/ for 1st person, ÃÂ- /wÃÂ/ for 2nd person, and zero marking for 3rd person). Nouns indicating a profession or role can also function as stative verbs.
Below is the present tense conjugation for the stative verb "to be sitting". Note the subject prefixes used.
Positional stative verbs often take locative prefixes to indicate relative position (inside, on, near).
Participles in Adyghe are formed by adding noun case markers (<span style="color:green">Absolutive -ÃÂ</span>, <span style="color:blue">Ergative -ü</span>, etc.) directly to the verb form. This turns the verb into a noun or adjective (e.g., "the one who walks," "the sitting one").
The Dynamic Suffix -ÃÂÃÂ: The suffix -ÃÂÃÂ is a marker of dynamic action inherited from Proto-Circassian (reconstructed as *-ra). In Modern Adyghe, this suffix is generally dropped in the standard present tense affirmative (e.g., ) because it is not followed by any other suffix. However, it reappears when followed by another suffix, such as a negative marker (e.g., ) or a case marker. Therefore, it is always visible in present tense dynamic participles.
Dynamic Verbs (Present Tense) Dynamic verbs (actions) always retain the suffix in the present tense participle because the case marker follows it.
Static Verbs (Present Tense) For static verbs (states), there is a crucial distinction based on whether the suffix is used:
Past & Future Tenses In the past and future tenses, participles for both dynamic and static verbs are formed identically: the case marker is added directly to the tense suffix. The dynamic suffix -ÃÂÃÂ is not used.
Masdar (similar to gerund) is formed by adding the suffix -ý (-n).
Masdar has grammatical cases:
In verbs, the negative meaning is expressed with the prefix -üà(usually before the root) or the suffix -ÃÂÿ/-ÿ (usually after tense suffixes).
Adyghe verbs have several forms to express different tenses; here are some of them:
The simple past tense in Adyghe is typically formed by adding the suffix -ðóà() or -ÃÂóà(). The choice of suffix and the behavior of the final root vowel follow specific morphological rules:
Below are examples showing the transition from the present tense to the simple past for various verb valencies and endings.
The pluperfect or discontinuous past tense is formed by adding the suffix (). This tense indicates that an action was completed in the past and often carries specific nuances:
Below are examples showing the transition from the present tense to the pluperfect for various verb valencies and endings. Note that for many verbs ending in , the vowel shifts to or before the pluperfect suffix.
The present tense in Adyghe has no additional suffixes, but in dynamic verbs, the pronoun prefix's vowels change form to or , for instance, "I ate" becomes "I eat" (), "(s)he saw" becomes "(s)he sees" ().
Examples :
The future tense is normally indicated by the suffix (close to future simple). This tense usually expresses some certainty.
Examples :
The imperfect tense is formed with the additional suffix to the verb. It can have meanings similar to the English "was walking" or "used to walk".
Examples :
This suffix can also be used to express an action that someone used to do in the past.
The conditional perfect is indicated by the suffix ~ÃÂÃÂÃÂóà/ÃÂtÃÂÃÂ/ as well.
Examples :
The future perfect tense is indicated by adding the suffix or . This tense indicates action that will be finished or expected to be finished at a certain time in the future.
Examples :
Adyghe infinitives are created by suffixing -ý () to the verb stem.
Unlike in many European languages, Adyghe infinitives can retain person markers. This allows the infinitive to indicate who is performing the action.
Due to the interchangeability of nouns and verbs in Adyghe, infinitives can be constructed from nouns or adjectives. These result in verbs describing the state of "being" that noun or adjective.
Usage Examples
The infinitive is often used with modal words like ("must" or "want").
For the future tense or to express purpose (supine), the suffix -ýÃÂà() is used. This is essentially the infinitive marker -ý combined with the adverbial case marker -ÃÂÃÂ.
Morphology is a central component of Circassian grammar. A single Circassian word, particularly a verb, can function as a complete sentence due to its polypersonal nature. Through a rich system of prefixes and suffixes, a verb can express the person, number, and role of the subject, direct object, and indirect object, as well as tense, mood, negation, location, and direction.
Adyghe utilizes a variety of prefixes to alter the meaning or valency of a verb. Most verbal prefixes either express direction (on, under, etc.) or increase the valency (adding participants like beneficiaries or co-actors).
Negation in Adyghe is expressed through two primary morphemes, depending on the context and tense.
1. Infix/Prefix Used primarily in the imperative mood (commands) and with participles.
2. Suffix Used primarily in indicative tenses (past, present, future). It usually attaches to the very end of the verb complex.
The prefix () indicates causation (making or letting someone do something). It increases the valency of the verb by adding a causer.
Examples:
The prefix () indicates an action performed together with someone ("with").
Examples:
The prefix () indicates an action performed for someone's benefit ("for").
Examples:
The prefix () indicates an action performed against someone's interest or will. It strongly implies taking something away from someone.
Examples:
Adyghe uses suffixes to express aspect, capability, manner, and other nuances.
The verbal suffix () indicates the repetition of an action ("again") or the return to a previous state/location ("back"). It can also denote the completion of an action.
Examples:
The verbal suffix () creates a converb, designating an action that takes place simultaneously with another action ("while").
Examples:
The verbal suffix () designates the ability or potential to perform the indicated action ("can", "able to").
Examples:
The verbal suffix () expresses the manner in which the action is performed. It effectively turns the verb into a noun meaning "way of [verb]ing".
Examples:
Alternatively, manner can be expressed using the prefix () combined with a case marker on the verb, though this functions syntactically as a relative clause ("how (s)he does it").
Adyghe verbs change their form to express the attitude of the speaker toward the action (mood). This includes commands, conditions, wishes, and questions.
The imperative mood is used to give commands or make requests.
The conditional mood expresses a condition ("if"). It is formed by the suffix ().
The concessive mood expresses a contrast or concession ("even if", "although"). It is formed by the suffix ().
The optative mood expresses a wish, desire, or hypothetical outcome ("would that", "if only"). It is formed by the complex suffix (), often attached to the past tense form of the verb.
The interrogative mood is used to ask Yes/No questions. It is marked by the suffix ().
This mood asks a question while expecting a positive answer ("isn't it?", "right?"). It is marked by the suffix ().
In Adyghe, the positional prefixes are expressing being in different positions and places and can also express the direction of the verb. Here is the positional conjugation of some dynamic verbs, showing how the prefix changes the indicated direction of the verb:
Adding a positional prefix to a verb often alters its valency by introducing a new spatial or locative argument. This new argument is always placed in the <span style="color:red">oblique case</span> (marked by -ü). The behavior of the verb and its arguments changes depending on its original transitivity.
When a positional prefix is attached to a monovalent intransitive verb, it adds a new valency. Because they don't have an oblique case argument by default, the new argument serves as the locative target, effectively turning it into a bivalent intransitive verb. Notice how the default dynamic 3rd-person prefix (üÃÂ-/üð-) drops when the positional prefix is introduced.
Bivalent intransitive verbs cannot simply take a new positional preposition because they already have an argument in the oblique case behaving as a dative/target. Instead, the positional prefix replaces the standard directional prefix, shifting the existing oblique noun/pronoun from a general dative target to a specific locative one.
Standard bivalent transitive verbs have an ergative subject and an absolutive direct object, but no oblique role. The addition of a positional prefix introduces a new locative argument in the oblique case, turning the verb into a trivalent transitive verb. Note how the positional prefix stacks with the ergative marker.
Trivalent transitive verbs (also called ditransitive verbs) cannot take a positional prefix. This is because these verbs inherently require three arguments (Agent, Theme, and Recipient/Goal), meaning their oblique case slot is already occupied. Adding a locative positional prefix would conflict with the existing indirect object argument structure.
In Adyghe, certain verb roots denote a general sense of motionâÂÂsuch as entering, exiting, removing, or fallingâÂÂbut they cannot exist on their own. They inherently require a positional prefix to specify the spatial nature of the action.
Below is a matrix showing how these bound motion roots combine with common positional prefixes: ÃÂõ- (on), ÃÂÃÂÃÂ- (under), ø- (inside), and àÃÂ- (within a mass/liquid).
Note: For the transitive roots (àÃÂý and ÃÂÃÂý), the 3rd-person singular ergative marker -õ- stacks and merges with the positional prefix (e.g., ÃÂÃÂà+ õ + àà+ ý = ÃÂÃÂõàÃÂý).
Here is the positional conjugation of some steady-state verbs, showing how the root changes the indicated position:
In Adyghe, verbal direction is indicated by a combination of prefixes and specific vowels within the verb stem (affixes).
The following table illustrates these discontinuous affixes (circumfixes) for common verbs.
Usage Examples
Examples
The cislocative prefix () indicates motion towards the deictic center (usually the speaker or "here"). Without this prefix, verbs typically imply motion away from the speaker (andative).
When addressing someone directly, can indicate motion towards the *listener* instead of the speaker.
In certain constructions involving a 3rd person argument, adding shifts the perspective, effectively swapping the subject and object roles relative to the speaker. This happens because the prefix redirects the focus "inward" toward the speaker.
Interaction Between 1st and 2nd Persons: This inversion rule only applies when a 3rd person is involved. When a 1st person and a 2nd person interact with each other, adding the cislocative prefix does not swap their roles. It merely adds a directional or venitive nuance to the existing relationship.