ûAbdu'l-Bahá (; Persian: , ;, 23 May 1844 â 28 November 1921), born ûAbbás (, ), was the eldest son of Baháüu'lláh, founder of the BaháâÂÂàFaith, who designated him to be his successor and head of the BaháüàFaith from 1892 until 1921. ûAbdu'l-Bahá was later cited as the last of three "central figures" of the religion, along with Baháüu'lláh and the Báb, and his writings and authenticated talks are regarded as sources of Baháüàsacred literature.
He was born in Tehran to an aristocratic family. At the age of eight, his father was imprisoned during a government crackdown on the BábàFaith and the family's possessions were looted, leaving them in virtual poverty. His father was exiled from their native Iran, and the family established their residence in Baghdad in Iraq, where they stayed for ten years. They were later called by the Ottoman state to Istanbul before entering another period of confinement in Edirne and finally the prison-city of ûAkká (Acre). ûAbdu'l-Bahá remained a prisoner there until the Young Turk Revolution freed him in 1908 at the age of 64. He then made several journeys to the West to spread the Baháüàmessage beyond its middle-eastern roots, but the onset of World War I left him largely confined to Haifa from 1914 to 1918. Following the war, the openly hostile Ottoman authorities were replaced by the British Mandate over Palestine, during which time he was appointed a Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire for his help in averting famine following the war.
In 1892, ûAbdu'l-Bahá was appointed in his father's will to be his successor and head of the BaháüàFaith. His Tablets of the Divine Plan galvanized BaháüÃÂs in North America to spread the Baháüàteachings to new territories, and his Will and Testament laid the foundation for the current Baháüàadministrative order. Many of his writings, prayers and letters are extant, and his discourses with the Western BaháüÃÂs emphasize the growth of the religion by the late 1890s.
ûAbdu'l-Bahá's given name was ûAbbás. Depending on context, he would have gone by either MÃÂrzá ûAbbás (Persian) or ûAbbás Effendi (Turkish), both of which are equivalent to the English Sir ûAbbás. During most of his time as head of the Bahá'àFaith, he used and preferred the title of ûAbdu'l-Bahá ("servant of Bahá", a reference to his father). He is commonly referred to in Baháüàtexts as "The Master".
ûAbdu'l-Bahá was born in Tehran, Persia (now Iran) on 23 May 1844 (5th of Jamadiyu'l-Avval, 1260 AH), the eldest son of Baháüu'lláh and Navváb. He was born on the same night on which the Báb declared his mission. Given the name ûAbbás at birth, he was named after his grandfather MÃÂrzá ûAbbás NúrÃÂ, a prominent and powerful nobleman. ûAbdu'l-Bahá's early years were shaped by his father's prominent role within the Bábàcommunity. As a child, he fondly recalled interactions with the BábÃÂ, Táhirih, describing how she would take him on her knee, caress him, and engage in heartfelt conversations, leaving a lasting impression on him. His childhood was characterized by happiness and carefree moments. The family's residences in Tehran and the countryside were not only comfortable but also beautifully adorned. Alongside his younger siblings â a sister, BahÃÂyyih, and a brother, Mihdàâ he experienced a life of privilege, joy, and comfort. ûAbdu'l-Bahá loved playing in the gardens with his younger sister, fostering a strong bond between them. During his formative years, ûAbdu'l-Bahá observed his parents' commitment to various charitable endeavors, including the conversion of part of their home into a hospital ward for women and children.
Due to a life largely marked by exile and imprisonment, ûAbdu'l-Bahá had limited opportunities for formal schooling. In his youth, it was customary for children of nobility, including ûAbdu'l-Bahá, not to attend conventional schools. Instead, noblemen typically received a brief education at home, focusing on subjects such as scripture, rhetoric, calligraphy, and basic mathematics, with an emphasis on preparing for life within royal courts.
ûAbdu'l-Bahá spent only a short period at a traditional preparatory school at the age of seven for a single year. His mother and uncle took on the responsibility of his early education, but the primary source of his learning was his father. In 1890 Edward Granville Browne described ûAbdu'l-Bahá, saying that "one more eloquent of speech, more ready of argument, more apt of illustration, more intimately acquainted with the sacred books of the Jews, the Christians, and the Muhammadans...could scarcely be found..."
According to contemporary accounts ûAbdu'l-Bahá was an eloquent and charming child. At the age of seven, he faced a severe health challenge when he contracted tuberculosis, and his prognosis suggested death. Though the illness abated, this marked the beginning of a lifelong struggle with recurrent bouts of various illnesses that would persist throughout his life.
One event that affected ûAbdu'l-Bahá greatly during his childhood was the imprisonment of his father when ûAbdu'l-Bahá was eight years old; this circumstance led to a considerable decline in the family's economic standing, subjecting him to poverty and exposing him to hostility from other children in the streets. ûAbdu'l-Bahá accompanied his mother to visit Baháüu'lláh who was then imprisoned in the infamous subterranean dungeon the SÃÂyáh-Chál. He described how "I saw a dark, steep place. We entered a small, narrow doorway, and went down two steps, but beyond those one could see nothing. In the middle of the stairway, all of a sudden we heard His [Baháüu'lláh's]â¦voice: 'Do not bring him in here', and so they took me back".
Baháüu'lláh was eventually released from prison but was ordered into exile, and ûAbdu'l-Bahá, then eight years old, joined his father on the journey to Baghdad in the winter (January to April) of 1853. During the journey ûAbdu'l-Bahá suffered from frost-bite. After a year of difficulties, Baháüu'lláh absented himself rather than continuing to face the conflict with Mirza Yahya and secluded himself in the mountains of Sulaymaniyah in April 1854, a month before ûAbdu'l-Bahá's tenth birthday Due to mutual sorrow, ûAbdu'l-Bahá, his mother and sister becoming constant companions. ûAbdu'l-Bahá was particularly close to both, and his mother took an active role in his education and upbringing. During the two-year absence of his father ûAbdu'l-Bahá took up the duty of managing the affairs of the family, before his age of maturity (14 in Middle-Eastern society) and was known to be occupied with reading and, at a time of hand-copied scriptures being the primary means of publishing, was also engaged in copying the writings of the Báb. ûAbdu'l-Bahá also took an interest in the art of horseback riding, and as he grew, he became a renowned rider.
In 1856, news of an ascetic engaging in discourses with local Súfàleaders reached family and friends, raising hopes that it could be BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh. Immediately, they went to search for Baháüu'lláh, and in March, brought him back to Baghdad. On seeing his father, ûAbdu'l-Bahá fell to his knees and wept loudly "Why did you leave us?", and his mother and sister did the same. ûAbdu'l-Bahá soon became his father's secretary and shield. During the sojourn in the city ûAbdu'l-Bahá grew from a boy into a young man. He was noted as a "remarkably fine looking youth", and remembered for his charity. Having passed the age of maturity, ûAbdu'l-Bahá was regularly seen in the mosques of Baghdad discussing religious topics and the scripture as a young man. Whilst in Baghdad, ûAbdu'l-Bahá composed a commentary at the request of his father on the Muslim tradition of "I was a Hidden Treasure" for a Súfàleader named ûAlàShawkat Páshá. ûAbdu'l-Bahá was fifteen or sixteen at the time and ûAlàShawkat Páshá regarded the more than 11,000-word essay as a remarkable feat for someone of his age. In 1863, in what became known as the Garden of Ridván, his father Baháüu'lláh announced to a few companions that he was the manifestation of God and He whom God shall make manifest whose coming had been foretold by the Báb. On day eight of the twelve days, it is reported that ûAbdu'l-Bahá was the first person to whom Baháüu'lláh revealed his claim.
In 1863, Baháüu'lláh was summoned to Istanbul, and thus his family, including ûAbdu'l-Bahá, then eighteen, accompanied him on his 110-day journey. The journey to Constantinople was another wearisome voyage, and ûAbdu'l-Bahá helped feed the exiles. It was here that his position became more prominent amongst the BaháüÃÂs. This was further solidified by Baháüu'lláh's tablet of the Branch in which he constantly exalts his son's virtues and station. BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh and his family were soon exiled to Adrianople, and on this journey ûAbdu'l-Bahá again suffered from frostbite.
In Adrianople ûAbdu'l-Bahá was regarded as the sole comforter of his family â in particular to his mother. At this point ûAbdu'l-Bahá was known by the BaháüÃÂs as "the Master", and by non-BaháüÃÂs as ûAbbás Effendi ("Effendi" signifies "Sir"). It was in Adrianople that Baháüu'lláh referred to his son as "the Mystery of God". The title of "Mystery of God" symbolises, according to BaháüÃÂs, that ûAbdu'l-Bahá is not a manifestation of God but that in the "person of ûAbdu'l-Bahá the incompatible characteristics of a human nature and superhuman knowledge and perfection have been blended and are completely harmonized". Baháüu'lláh gave his son many other titles such as GÃÂhusn-i-Aûzam (meaning "Mightiest Branch" or "Mightier Branch"), the "Branch of Holiness", "the Center of the Covenant" and the apple of his eye. Upon learning of yet another exile of BaháâÂÂuâÂÂllah, this time to Palestine, ûAbdu'l-Bahá ("the Master") was devastated when hearing the news that he and his family were to be exiled separately from Baháüu'lláh. It was, according to BaháüÃÂs, through his intercession that the idea was reverted and the rest of the family were allowed to be exiled together.
At the age of 24, ûAbdu'l-Bahá was clearly chief-steward to his father and an outstanding member of the Baháüàcommunity. In 1868 Baháüu'lláh and his family were exiled to the penal colony of ûAkká, Palestine where it was expected that the family would perish. Arrival in ûAkká was distressing for the family and exiles when they were met by a hostile local population. When told that the women were to sit on the shoulders of the men to reach the shore, ûAbdu'l-Bahá obtained chairs to carry the women to land. His sister and father fell dangerously ill. ûAbdu'l-Bahá was able to procure some anesthetic and nursed the sick. The BaháüÃÂs were imprisoned under horrendous conditions in a cluster of cells covered in excrement and dirt. ûAbdu'l-Bahá himself fell dangerously ill with dysentery, and a sympathetic soldier permitted a physician to attend to him. The population shunned them, the soldiers treated them badly, and the behaviour of Siyyid Muhammad-i-Isfahani (an Azali) aggravated matters. Morale declined further with the accidental death of ûAbdu'l-Bahá's youngest brother MÃÂrzá Mihdàat the age of 22. The grieving ûAbdu'l-Bahá kept a night-long vigil beside his brother's body.
Over time, he gradually assumed responsibility for the relationships between the small Baháüàexile community and the outside world. It was through his interaction with the people of ûAkká (Acre) that, they recognized the innocence of the BaháüÃÂs, and thus the conditions of imprisonment were eased. Four months after the death of Mihdàthe family moved from the prison to the House of ûAbbúd. Gradually the respect of the local population for the BaháüÃÂs increased, and in particular, for ûAbdu'l-Bahá who soon became very popular in the penal colony. Myron Henry Phelps a wealthy New York lawyer described how "a crowd of human beings...Syrians, Arabs, Ethiopians, and many others", all waited to talk and receive ûAbdu'l-Bahá. With the passage of time ûAbdu'l-Bahá was able to rent alternative accommodations for the family, and eventually the family moved to the Mansion of Bahjàaround 1879 when an epidemic caused its residents to flee.
ûAbdu'l-Bahá undertook a history of the Bábàreligion through publication of A Traveller's Narrative (Makála-i-ShakhsàSayyáh) in 1886, later translated and published in translation in 1891 through Cambridge University through the agency of Edward Granville Browne.
When ûAbdu'l-Bahá was a young man, speculation was rife amongst the BaháüÃÂs as to whom he would marry. Several young girls were seen as marriage prospects but ûAbdu'l-Bahá seemed disinclined to marriage. On 8 March 1873, at the urging of his father, the twenty-eight-year-old ûAbdu'l-Bahá married Fátimih Nahràof Isfahán (1847âÂÂ1938) a twenty-five-year-old from an upper-class family of the city. Her father was MÃÂrzá Muḥammad ûAlàNahràof Isfahan, an eminent Baháüàwith prominent connections. Fátimih was brought from Persia to ûAkká after both Baháüu'lláh and his wife Navváb expressed an interest that she marries ûAbdu'l-Bahá. After a wearisome journey from Isfahán to Akka she finally arrived accompanied by her brother in 1872. The young couple were betrothed for about five months before the marriage itself commenced. In the meantime, Fátimih lived in the home of ûAbdu'l-Bahá's uncle MÃÂrzá Músá. According to her later memoirs, Fátimih fell in love with ûAbdu'l-Bahá on seeing him. ûAbdu'l-Bahá himself had shown little inkling to marriage until meeting Fátimih; who was entitled MunÃÂrih by Baháüu'lláh. MunÃÂrih is a title meaning "Luminous".
The marriage resulted in nine children. The first born was a son MihdàEffendi who died aged about 3. He was followed by á¸ÂÃÂyáüÃÂyyih KÃÂhánum, FuüádÃÂyyih KÃÂhánum (who dies very young), RúhangÃÂz Khánum (d. 1893), Túbá Khánum, Husayn Effendi (d. 1887 aged 5), Túbá KÃÂhánum, Rúhá KÃÂhánum (mother of Munib Shahid), and Munnavar KÃÂhánum. The death of his children caused ûAbdu'l-Bahá immense grief â in particular the death of his son Husayn Effendi came at a difficult time following the death of his mother and uncle. The surviving children (all daughters) were; á¸ÂÃÂyáüÃÂyyih KÃÂhánum (mother of Shoghi Effendi) (d. 1951) Túbá KÃÂhánum (1880âÂÂ1959) Rúḥá KÃÂhánum and Munavvar KÃÂhánum (d. 1971). Baháüu'lláh wished that the BaháüÃÂs follow the example of ûAbdu'l-Bahá and gradually move away from polygamy. The marriage of ûAbdu'l-Bahá to one woman and his choice to remain monogamous, from advice of his father and his own wish, legitimised the practice of monogamy to a people who hitherto had regarded polygamy as a righteous way of life.
After Baháüu'lláh died on 29 May 1892, the Book of the Covenant of Baháüu'lláh (his will) named ûAbdu'l-Bahá as Centre of the Covenant, successor and interpreter of Baháüu'lláh's writings.
Baháüu'lláh designates his successor with the following verses:
In Baháüu'lláh's will, ûAbdu'l-Bahá's half-brother, Muhammad ûAlÃÂ, was mentioned by name as being subordinate to ûAbdu'l-Bahá. Muhammad ûAlàbecame jealous of âÂÂAbduâÂÂl-Bahá and set out to establish authority for himself as an alternative leader with the support of his brothers BadiâÂÂu'llah and á¸ÂÃÂyáüu'llah. He began correspondence with BaháüÃÂs in Iran, initially in secret, casting doubts in others' minds about ûAbdu'l-Bahá. While most BaháüÃÂs followed ûAbdu'l-Bahá, a handful followed Muhammad ûAlàincluding such prominent BaháâÂÂÃÂs as Mirza Javad and Ibrahim George Kheiralla, an early Baháüàmissionary to America.
Muhammad ûAlàand Mirza Javad began to openly accuse ûAbdu'l-Bahá of assuming too much authority, suggesting that he believed himself to be a Manifestation of God, equal in status to Baháüu'lláh. It was at this time that ûAbdu'l-Bahá, to counter the accusations leveled against him, stated in tablets to the West that he was to be known as "ûAbdu'l-Bahá" an Arabic phrase meaning the Servant of Bahá to make it clear that he was not a Manifestation of God, and that his station was only servitude. ûAbdu'l-Bahá left a Will and Testament that established the framework of the administration of the BaháüàFaith, the two highest institutions of which were the Universal House of Justice, and the Guardianship, for which he appointed his grandson Shoghi Effendi as the Guardian. With the exception of ûAbdu'l-Bahá and Shoghi Effendi, Muhammad ûAlàwas supported by all of the remaining male relatives of Baháüu'lláh, including Shoghi Effendi's father, MÃÂrzá HádàShÃÂrázÃÂ. However, in general the BaháâÂÂÃÂs experienced very little effect from the propaganda ofàMuhammad ûAlàand his allies; in the ûAkká area, the followers of Muhammad ûAlàrepresented six families at most, had no common religious activities, and were almost wholly assimilated into Muslim society.
Religions in the past faced schism and doctrinal drift after the death of their prophet founders. ûAbdu'l-Bahá however managed to preserve the unity and doctrinal integrity of the BaháüàFaith, even in the face of serious threats from his half-brother's opposition. His success is especially notable given that even in the midst of these attacks his leadership brought about considerable expansion of the Baháüàcommunity beyond its initial cultural and geographic roots.
By the end of 1898, Western pilgrims started traveling to Akka on pilgrimage to visit ûAbdu'l-Bahá; this group of pilgrims, including Phoebe Hearst, was the first time that BaháüÃÂs raised up in the West had met ûAbdu'l-Bahá. The first group arrived in 1898 and throughout late 1898 to early 1899 Western BaháüÃÂs sporadically visited ûAbdu'l-Bahá. The group was relatively young containing mainly women from high American society in their 20s. The group of Westerners aroused suspicion for the authorities, and consequently ûAbdu'l-Bahá's confinement was tightened. During the next decade ûAbdu'l-Bahá would be in constant communication with BaháüÃÂs around the world, encouraging them to teach the religion; the group included Susan Moody, Lua Getsinger, Laura Clifford Barney, Herbert Hopper and May Ellis Bolles in Paris (all Americans); Englishman Thomas Breakwell; and Frenchman . It was Laura Clifford Barney who, by asking questions of ûAbdu'l-Bahá over many years and many visits to Haifa, compiled what later became the book Some Answered Questions.
During the final years of the 19th century, while ûAbdu'l-Bahá was still officially a prisoner and confined to ûAkka, he organized the transfer of the remains of the Báb from Iran to Palestine. He then organized the purchase of land on Mount Carmel that Baháüu'lláh had instructed should be used to lay the remains of the Báb, and organized for the construction of the Shrine of the Báb. This process took another 10 years. With the increase of pilgrims visiting ûAbdu'l-Bahá, Muhammad ûAlàconspired with the Ottoman authorities to re-introduce stricter terms on ûAbdu'l-Bahá's imprisonment in August 1901. By 1902, however, due to the support of the Governor of ûAkka, the situation was greatly eased; while pilgrims were able to once again visit ûAbdu'l-Bahá, he was still confined to the city. In February 1903, two followers of Muhammad ûAlÃÂ, including Badiûu'llah and Siyyid ûAliy-i-Afnan, broke with Muhammad ûAli and wrote books and letters giving details of Muhammad ûAli's plots and noting that what was circulating about ûAbdu'l-Bahá was fabrication.
From 1902 to 1904, even as âÂÂAbduâÂÂl-Bahá directed the construction of the Shrine of the Báb, he initiated execution of two additional projects; the restoration of the House of the Báb in Shiraz, Iran and the construction of the first BaháüàHouse of Worship in Ashgabat, Turkmenistan. ûAbdu'l-Bahá asked Aqa Mirza Aqa to coordinate the restoration of the house of the Báb to its state at the time of the Báb's declaration to Mulla Husayn in 1844; he also entrusted the work on the House of Worship to Vakil-u'd-Dawlih.
In his role as head of the BaháâÂÂàFaith, âÂÂAbduâÂÂl-Bahá would occasionally communicate with leaders of thought to offer commentary and guidance based on the BaháâÂÂàteachings, and in defense of the BaháâÂÂàcommunity. During this period, ûAbdu'l-Bahá communicated with a number of Young Turks, who sought to reform to the reign of Sultan Abdul Hamid II, including Namñk Kemal, Ziya Pasha and Midhat Pasha. He emphasized BaháüÃÂs "seek freedom and love liberty, hope for equality, are well-wishers of humanity and ready to sacrifice their lives to unite humanity" but on a more broad approach than the Young Turks. Abdullah Cevdet, one of the founders of the Committee of Union and Progress who considered the BaháüàFaith an intermediary step between Islam and the ultimate abandonment of religious belief, would go on trial for defense of BaháüÃÂs in a periodical he founded.
âÂÂAbdu'l-Bahá also had contact with military leaders, including such individuals as Bursalñ Mehmet Tahir Bey and Hasan Bedreddin. The latter, who in an earlier period was involved in the overthrow of Sultan Abdülaziz in 1876, is commonly known as Bedri Paà Âa or Bedri Pasha and is referred to in Persian Baháüàsources as Bedri Bey (Badri Beg). He probably came to know âÂÂAbduâÂÂl-Baha around 1898 when he served in the Ottoman administration in Akká. Persian sources cite him was a Baháüàand he who translated âÂÂAbdu'l-Baha's works into French. âÂÂAbduâÂÂl-Bahá continued to communicate with him for several years when he was governor of Albania.
ûAbdu'l-Bahá also met Muhammad Abduh, one of the key figures of Islamic Modernism and the Salafi movement, in Beirut, at a time when the two men shared similar goals of religious reform. Rashid Rida asserts that during his visits to Beirut, ûAbdu'l-Bahá would attend Abduh's study sessions. Regarding the meetings of ûAbdu'l-Bahá and Muhammad ûAbduh, Shoghi Effendi asserts that "His several interviews with the well-known Shaykh Muhammad ûAbdu served to enhance immensely the growing prestige of the community and spread abroad the fame of its most distinguished member."
Due to Muhammad ûAli's accusations against him, a Commission of Inquiry interviewed ûAbdu'l-Bahá in 1905, almost resulting in exile to Fezzan. In response, ûAbdu'l-Bahá wrote the sultan a letter protesting that his followers refrain from involvement in partisan politics and that his tariqa had guided many Americans to Islam. The next few years in ûAkka were relatively free of pressures and pilgrims were able to come and visit ûAbdu'l-Bahá. By 1909 the mausoleum of the Shrine of the Báb was completed.
The 1908 Young Turks revolution liberated all political and religious prisoners in the Ottoman Empire, and ûAbdu'l-Bahá was freed from imprisonment. His first action after his liberation was to visit the Shrine of Baháüu'lláh in Bahji. While ûAbdu'l-Bahá continued to live in ûAkka immediately following the revolution, he soon moved to live in Haifa near the Shrine of the Báb. In 1910, with the freedom to leave the country, he embarked on a three-year journey to Egypt, Europe, and North America, spreading the Baháüàmessage.
From August to December 1911, ûAbdu'l-Bahá visited cities in Europe, including London, Bristol, and Paris. The purpose of these trips was to support the Baháüàcommunities in the west and to further spread his father's teachings.
In the following year, he undertook a much more extensive journey to the United States and Canada to once again spread his father's teachings. He arrived in New York City on 11 April 1912, after declining an offer of passage on the RMS Titanic, telling the Baháüàbelievers, instead, to "Donate this to charity." He instead travelled on a slower craft, the RMS Cedric, and cited preference of a longer sea journey as the reason. After hearing of the Titanic's sinking on 16 April he was quoted as saying "I was asked to sail upon the Titanic, but my heart did not prompt me to do so." While he spent most of his time in New York, he visited Chicago, Cleveland, Pittsburgh, Washington, D.C.,Boston and Philadelphia. In August of the same year he started a more extensive journey to places including New Hampshire, the Green Acre school in Maine, and Montreal (his only visit to Canada). He then travelled west to Minneapolis, Minnesota; San Francisco; Stanford; and Los Angeles, California before returning east at the end of October. On 5 December 1912 he set sail back to Europe.
During his visit to North America he visited many missions, churches, and groups, as well as having scores of meetings in homes of BaháüÃÂs, and offering innumerable personal meetings with hundreds of people. During his talks he proclaimed Baháüàprinciples such as the unity of God, unity of the religions, oneness of humanity, equality of women and men, world peace and economic justice. He also insisted that all his meetings be open to all races.
His visit and talks were the subject of hundreds of newspaper articles. In Boston newspaper reporters asked ûAbdu'l-Bahá why he had come to America, and he stated that he had come to participate in conferences on peace and that just giving warning messages is not enough. ûAbdu'l-Bahá's visit to Montreal provided notable newspaper coverage; on the night of his arrival the editor of the Montreal Daily Star met with him and that newspaper along with The Montreal Gazette, Montreal Standard, and among others reported on ûAbdu'l-Bahá's activities. The headlines in those papers included "Persian Teacher to Preach Peace", "Racialism Wrong, Says Eastern Sage, Strife and War Caused by Religious and National Prejudices", and "Apostle of Peace Meets Socialists, Abdul Baha's Novel Scheme for Distribution of Surplus Wealth." The Montreal Standard, which was distributed across Canada, took so much interest that it republished the articles a week later; the Gazette published six articles and Montreal's largest French language newspaper published two articles about him. His 1912 visit to Montreal also inspired humourist Stephen Leacock to parody him in his bestselling 1914 book Arcadian Adventures with the Idle Rich. In Chicago one newspaper headline included "His Holiness Visits Us, Not Pius X but A. Baha," and ûAbdu'l-Bahá's visit to California was reported in the Palo Altan.
Back in Europe, he visited London, Edinburgh, Paris (where he stayed for two months), Stuttgart, Budapest, and Vienna. Finally, on 12 June 1913, he returned to Egypt, where he stayed for six months before returning to Haifa.
During World War I (1914âÂÂ1918) ûAbdu'l-Bahá stayed in Palestine and was unable to travel. He carried on a limited correspondence, which included the Tablets of the Divine Plan, a collection of fourteen letters addressed to the BaháüÃÂs of North America, later described as one of three "charters" of the BaháüàFaith. The letters assign a leadership role for the North American BaháüÃÂs in spreading the religion around the planet.
Haifa was under real threat of Allied bombardment, enough that ûAbdu'l-Bahá and other BaháüÃÂs temporarily retreated to the hills east of ûAkka.
ûAbdu'l-Bahá was also under threats from Cemal Paà Âa, the Ottoman military chief who at one point expressed his desire to crucify him and destroy Baháüàproperties in Palestine. The swift Megiddo offensive of the British General Allenby swept away the Turkish forces in Palestine before harm was done to the BaháüÃÂs, and the war was over less than two months later.
The conclusion of World War I led to the openly hostile Ottoman authorities being replaced by the more friendly British Mandate, allowing for a renewal of correspondence, pilgrims, and development of the BaháüàWorld Centre properties. It was during this revival of activity that the BaháüàFaith saw an expansion and consolidation in places like Egypt, the Caucasus, Iran, Turkmenistan, North America and South Asia under the leadership of ûAbdu'l-Bahá.
The end of the war brought about several political developments on which ûAbdu'l-Bahá commented. The League of Nations formed in January 1920, representing the first instance of collective security through a worldwide organization. ûAbdu'l-Bahá had written in 1875 for the need to establish a "Union of the nations of the world", and he praised the attempt through the League of Nations as an important step towards the goal. He also said that it was "incapable of establishing Universal Peace" because it did not represent all nations and had only trivial power over its member states. Around the same time, the British Mandate supported the ongoing immigration of Jews to Palestine. ûAbdu'l-Bahá mentioned the immigration as a fulfillment of prophecy, and encouraged the Zionists to develop the land and "elevate the country for all its inhabitants... They must not work to separate the Jews from the other Palestinians...If the Zionists will mingle with the other races and live in unity with them, they will succeed. If not, they will meet certain resistance."
The war also left the region in famine. In 1901, ûAbdu'l-Bahá had purchased about 1704 acres of scrubland near the Jordan river and by 1907 many BaháüÃÂs from Iran had begun sharecropping on the land. ûAbdu'l-Bahá received between 20 and 33% of their harvest (or cash equivalent), which was shipped to Haifa. With the war still raging in 1917, ûAbdu'l-Bahá received a large amount of wheat from the crops, and also bought other available wheat and shipped it back to Haifa. The wheat arrived just after the British captured Palestine, and as such was widely distributed to allay the famine. For this service in averting a famine in Northern Palestine he received the honour of Knight Commander of the Order of the British Empire at a ceremony held in his honor at the home of the British Governor on 27 April 1920. He was later visited by General Allenby, King Faisal (later King of Iraq), Herbert Samuel (High Commissioner for Palestine), and Ronald Storrs (Military Governor of Jerusalem).
ûAbdu'l-Bahá died on Monday, 28 November 1921, sometime after 1:15 a.m. (27th of Rabi' al-awwal, 1340 AH).
Then Colonial Secretary Winston Churchill telegraphed the High Commissioner for Palestine, "convey to the BaháüàCommunity, on behalf of His Majesty's Government, their sympathy and condolence." Similar messages came from Viscount Allenby, the Council of Ministers of Iraq, and others.
On his funeral, which was held the next day, Esslemont notes:
Among the talks delivered at the funeral, Shoghi Effendi records Stewart Symes (Governor of the Palestine North District) giving the following tribute:
He was buried in the front room of the Shrine of the Báb on Mount Carmel. His interment there is meant to be temporary, until his own mausoleum can be built in the vicinity of Riá¸Âván Garden, known as the Shrine of ûAbdu'l-Bahá.
ûAbdu'l-Bahá left a Will and Testament that was originally written between 1901 and 1908 and addressed to Shoghi Effendi, who at that time was only 4âÂÂ11 years old. The will appoints Shoghi Effendi as the first in a line of Guardians of the religion, a hereditary executive role that may provide authoritative interpretations of scripture. ûAbdu'l-Bahá directed all BaháüÃÂs to turn to him and obey him, and assured him of divine protection and guidance. The will also provided a formal reiteration of his teachings, such as the instructions to teach, manifest spiritual qualities, associate with all people, and shun Covenant-breakers. Many obligations of the Universal House of Justice and the Hands of the Cause were also elaborated. Shoghi Effendi later described the document as one of three "charters" of the BaháüàFaith.
The authenticity and provisions of the will were almost universally accepted by BaháüÃÂs around the world, with the exception of Ruth White and a few other Americans who tried to protest Shoghi Effendi's leadership.
In volumes of The BaháüàWorld published in 1930 and 1933, Shoghi Effendi named nineteen BaháüÃÂs as disciples of ûAbdu'l-Bahá and heralds of the Covenant, including Thornton Chase, , John Esslemont, Lua Getsinger, and Robert Turner. No other statements about them have been found in Shoghi Effendi's writings.
During his lifetime there was some ambiguity among BaháüÃÂs as to his station relative to Baháüu'lláh, and later to Shoghi Effendi. Some American newspapers erroneously reported him to be a Baháüàprophet or the return of Christ. Shoghi Effendi later formalized his legacy as the last of three "Central Figures" of the BaháüàFaith and the "Perfect exemplar" of the teachings, also claiming that holding him on an equal status to Baháüu'lláh or Jesus was heretical. Shoghi Effendi also wrote that during the anticipated Baháüàdispensation of 1000 years there will be no equal to ûAbdu'l-Bahá.
ûAbdu'l-Bahá was described as handsome, and bore striking resemblance to his mother. As an adult he reached medium height but he gave the impression of being taller. He had dark hair that flowed to his shoulders, grey coloured eyes, a fair complexion and an aquiline nose. In 1890, Orientalist Edward Granville Browne met him and wrote:
After the death of BaháâÂÂuâÂÂlláh, ûAbdu'l-Bahá began to visibly age. By the late 1890s his hair had turned snow-white and deep lines set on his face. As a young man he was athletic and enjoyed archery, horseback riding and swimming. Even later in his life ûAbdu'l-Bahá remained active going for long walks in Haifa and Acre.
ûAbdu'l-Bahá was a major presence for the BaháâÂÂÃÂs during his lifetime, and he continues to influence the BaháâÂÂàcommunity today. BaháâÂÂÃÂs regard âÂÂAbduâÂÂl-Bahá as the perfect example of the teachings of his father and therefore strive to emulate him. Anecdotes about him are frequently used to illustrate particular points about morality and interpersonal relations. He was remembered for his charisma, compassion, philanthropy and strength in the face of suffering. John Esslemont reflected that "[âÂÂAbduâÂÂl-Bahá] showed that it is still possible, amid the whirl and rush of modern life, amid the self-love and struggle for material prosperity that everywhere prevail, to live the life of entire devotion to God and to the service of one's fellows."
Even ardent enemies of the BaháâÂÂàFaith were on occasion taken by meeting him. MÃÂrzá 'Abdu'l-Muḥammad ÃÂránàMu'addibu's-Sulá¹Âán, an Iranian, and Shaykh 'AlàYúsuf, an Arab, were both newspaper editors in Egypt who had published harsh attacks on the BaháâÂÂàFaith in their papers. They called on âÂÂAbduâÂÂl-Bahá when he was in Egypt and their attitude changed. Similarly, a Christian clergyman, Rev. J.T. Bixby, who was the author of a hostile article on the BaháâÂÂàFaith in the United States, felt compelled to witness Abdu'l-Bahá's personal qualities. The effect of âÂÂAbduâÂÂl-Bahá on those who were already committed BaháâÂÂÃÂs was greater still.
ûAbdu'l-Bahá was widely known for his encounters with the poor and dying. His generosity resulted in his own family complaining that they were left with nothing. He was sensitive to peopleâÂÂs feelings, and later expressed his wish to be a beloved figure of the BaháâÂÂÃÂs saying âÂÂI am your father...and you must be glad and rejoice, for I love you exceedingly.â According to historical accounts, he had a keen sense of humour and was relaxed and informal. He was open about personal tragedies such as the loss of his children and the sufferings he'd endured as a prisoner, further enhancing his popularity.
âÂÂAbduâÂÂl-Bahá directed the affairs of the BaháâÂÂàcommunity with care. He was inclined to allow a large range of personal interpretations of the BaháâÂÂàteachings as long as these did not obviously contradict fundamental principles. He did, however, expel members of the religion he felt were challenging his leadership and deliberately causing disunity in the community. Outbreaks of persecution of the BaháâÂÂÃÂs affected him deeply. He wrote personally to the families of those who had been martyred.
The total estimated number of tablets that ûAbdu'l-Bahá wrote are over 27,000 of which only a fraction have been translated into English. His works fall into two groups including first his direct writings and second his lectures and speeches as noted by others. The first group includes The Secret of Divine Civilization written before 1875, A Traveller's Narrative written around 1886, the ResÃÂla-ye sëÃÂsëya or Sermon on the Art of Governance written in 1893, the Memorials of the Faithful, and a large number of tablets written to various people; including various Western intellectuals such as Auguste Forel which has been translated and published as the Tablet to Auguste-Henri Forel. The Secret of Divine Civilization and the Sermon on the Art of Governance were widely circulated anonymously.
The second group includes Some Answered Questions, which is an English translation of a series of table talks with Laura Barney, and Paris Talks, ûAbdu'l-Baha in London and Promulgation of Universal Peace which are respectively addresses given by ûAbdu'l-Bahá in Paris, London and the United States.
The following is a list of some of ûAbdu'l-Bahá's many books, tablets, and talks: