Oikonyms in Western, Central, South, and Southeast Asia can be grouped according to various components, reflecting common linguistic and cultural histories. Toponymic study is not as extensive as it is for placenames in Europe and Anglophone parts of the world, but the origins of many placenames can be determined with a fair degree of certainty. One complexity to the study when discussing it in English is that the Romanization of names, during British rule and otherwise, from other languages has not been consistent.
In Rajasthan, names are frequently given after rock, stone, ravine, and embankment. In the Gangetic plain, the predominant natural features are trees, grass prairies, and bodies of water. Prominent trees, visible from a long way off, would often serve as landmarks and give their name to places before there was any permanent settlement there. This was especially the case where a large tree indicated a ford across a river; for example, the name GaighÃÂá¹ indicates a ford next to an agai tree. Tree names are especially common in areas that were historically under dense forest cover until recent centuries.
Common affixes used in South Asian oikonyms can be grouped based on their linguistic origin (with examples from India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Nepal, and elsewhere such as in Sanskrit-influenced Indonesia):
Means hamlet — e.g. Dombivli; Kasan Wala; Sandhilianwali; Gujranwala; Chhindwara; Tiruchirappalli; Saraipali
Means "fort" — Pathankot; Sialkot
Means "city", or "city of" — e.g. Visakhapatnam'
Means "abode"; from Sanskrit ÃÂ-laya. e.g. Meghalaya, Himalaya, LokÃÂ-laya (settlement).
These suffixes are very common, especially -aulë. In many cases, they are probably derived from Sanskrit palli, referring to a hamlet or small village. For example, BÃÂrá¸Âolë in Gujarat is attested in a Rashtrakuta-era inscription as VÃÂraá¸ÂapallikÃÂ. Names with these suffixes may also come from Sanskrit valli, meaning "section" or "part"; either origin is plausible.
At some point, it seems that -aulë became regarded as a distinct morpheme by itself, and apparently used independently as a suffix without being derived from an earlier form. For example, the names Shamsaulë and Shekhauliyàmust have coined after the Muslim conquest to simply mean something like "Shams ud-Dën's village".
The form -aulë also seems to have become standardised and absorbed similar forms by analogy. For example, Dubaulë (from Dà «be) is a common village name in eastern Uttar Pradesh, but it is not the regular, expected form of the name. The regular form would be Dubelë, which exists but is far less common. In most cases, the name was assimilated to -aulë by analogy with other places with names ending in -aulë.
Means bamboo, from Sanskrit vaá¹Âà Âa. It was historically common for villages to be surrounded by bamboo groves that were planted as a form of defence. In many cases, it can be hard to distinguish between places named with bÃÂns from places named with bÃÂs ("dwelling"), since bÃÂs sometimes becomes nasalised and bÃÂns sometimes becomes de-nasalised. Examples of places named with bÃÂns are BÃÂnsgÃÂon and BÃÂnsë.
The names baá¹ and bargad both refer to the banyan tree, ultimately from Sanskrit vaá¹Âa. This is a very common place name element; according to Sankalia, many towns and villages may have originally started out as temporary shelters underneath the wide canopy of a banyan tree. As they grew into more permanent settlements, they kept the name. Baá¹ has the common variations baḠand baá¹Â. Another variant is vaá¸Â, as in Vaá¸ÂodarÃÂ.
A common prefix, especially in eastern Uttar Pradesh. The Oxford Hindi-English Dictionary defines chak (à ¤Âà ¤Â) with several meanings, including "a piece of assigned or rent-free land"; "the detached or unconsolidated fields of a village"; and simply "a sub-division of land". It derives the term from Sanskrit chakra, meaning "circle". Whalley, on the other hand, preferred a derivation from Persian chak, noting that "Chak" is frequently followed by a Muslim name.
Means village, land, country; from Sanskrit à ¤¦à ¥Âà ¤¶ (desa) for "space" — e.g. Bangladesh. In Indonesia it becomes Desa which is another Indonesian word for "village".
In many cases, this ending is probably a "worn-down" descendant of earlier -kheá¹Âa ("village").
Means fortress — Chandigarh, Ramgarh
According to Whalley, Gaá¹Âhë when used as a prefix probably in most cases originally referred to a village surrounded by a ditch.
In many cases, the place name element Maà « (or mai) may be derived from Sanskrit maryÃÂdÃÂ, meaning "shore" or "bank". This name is usually given to places by a river, stream, or jhil (for example, á¸Âalmaà « on the Gaá¹ gÃÂ). Examples of these names are Arghaá¹Âmaà « ("the bank or shore where the water-wheel is"), Bhainsmai ("shore where cattle or horses graze"), or PathrÃÂmai ("stony shore"). In other cases, maà « is a contraction of mahuÃÂ: the mahua tree, Madhuca longifolia.
Some places have Maà « as a standalone name (for example, Maà «, Uttar Pradesh), while in other cases -maà « is a suffix or even a prefix. The name MÃÂwai is a variant of Maà «.
Means city, land, country, village; from Sanskrit à ¤¨à ¤Âà ¤° (nagara) — e.g. Ahmednagar, Biratnagar. In Indonesian, the word Negara means "country" and the word Nagari is a term used in West Sumatra referring to "village". Also used in Borneo island, e.g. Negara Brunei Darussalam
Many modern names using nagar in full are relatively recent origin; older names with nagar have often been shortened to nÃÂr or ner.
At least in northern India, nagar is not used as a prefix. Instead, the forms NaglÃÂ or, more rarely, NagrÃÂ, are used. About 100 places also have the feminine forms NagariyÃÂ and NagariyÃÂ.
Apparently derived from Sanskrit nivÃÂsa, "dwelling", combined with the Persian name NauÃÂbÃÂd ("new settlement"). NawÃÂdÃÂ, along with its feminine variant NawÃÂdiyÃÂ, is a very common village name by itself, and it is also used as a prefix for other names.
In many cases, this ending is probably a "worn-down" descendant of earlier -gÃÂon ("village") or -ban ("forest").
The Sanskrit term padra denoted a roadside village or residence (related to pad, meaning "foot"). Beginning around the 5th century, a regular sound change took place where /p/ became /v/ between vowels, turning this suffix into -vadra in many place names. In many modern place names, -vadra has further morphed into -darÃÂ. For example, Vaá¸Âodaràis from an earlier attested form Vaá¹Âapadra, Talodràis from Talapadra or Talapadraka, and LÃÂá¹Âhodràis from LÃÂá¹Âhivadra (attested in Chaulukya-era epigraphy). Similar names like Saá¸Âodaràand Raá¹Âodaràprobably share the same origin, although their older forms are not directly attested.
PahÃÂá¹Â, with the retroflex á¹Â, means a hill, cliff, or overhanging river bank. PahÃÂr with a non-retroflex r is a personal name, derived from Sanskrit prahÃÂra. It can be hard to tell these place name elements apart because they can be easily confused in other scripts.
From Hindi paá¹Âá¹Âë, meaning "strip", itself derived from Sanskrit paá¹Âá¹ÂikÃÂ. As a place name element, it is used in the sense of "a strip of land". In some cases it refers to a share of land held in joint tenure by a pattidar (literally "shareholder").
These are all names for the pilkhan tree, one of several varieties of fig tree viewed as sacred in Hinduism. The forms pilkhu and pilkhan come from Sanskrit plaká¹£ÃÂ, while pÃÂkaá¹ and pÃÂkhaá¹ come from Sanskrit #Sanskrit parkaá¹Âë. One place with this name is PilkhuwÃÂ.
literally "lump" or a small altar of sand
The pëpal tree, Ficus religiosa, is a common place name element.
Means village, town, state, country; from Sanskrit à ¤ªà ¥Âà ¤° (pura) — e.g. Jamalpur; Kanpur; Khanpur. In Southeast Asian and some south Asian countries, it is known as pura, e.g. Anuradhapura, Singapura, and Indonesian cities such as Jayapura, Siak Sri Indrapura, etc. In Indonesia, pura also refers to a Hindu temple.
In ancient times, the word pura strictly referred to a fort, but its meaning was gradually broadened to include any town regardless of its particular function. By the early medieval period, pura was often used to denote a commercial centre â especially in southern India, where the typical form was puram.
In many cases, old names originally ending in -pura have become shortened to -or over the centuries. In the case of Mangrol (originally Maá¹ galapura), the suffix has become -rol instead.
The variant purÃÂ often originally referred to a suburb, or to a Muslim colony.
Pur is not used as a prefix. Instead, the form Puràis used. In west-central Uttar Pradesh, around Kanpur and Etawah, the prefix takes the form PurwÃÂ. Farther east, toward Basti, it takes the form Pure. The feminine form Purë is rarely found as a prefix.
Many places are named after the semal tree. There are many variations of this place name. One place with this name is Sambhal, where the form sambal ended up becoming aspirated.
According to Sankalia, this suffix has two possible origins: from -pÃÂá¹Âaka, which originally designated "a large, but private house, or settlement within a village"; and -vÃÂá¹Âaka, which denoted "a temporarily enclosed place, such as a garden, plantation, or an enclosure of a (low caste) village consisting of boundary trees". The shortened form pÃÂá¸Âàappears early on in ArdhamÃÂgadhë Prakrit, and in early Jain literature refers to a suburb of a larger town. In Gujarat, the present form -vÃÂá¸Âàfirst appears in inscriptions dating to the Chaulukya period. -VÃÂá¸Âàcontinued to be used productively to form new place names; it would have been originally given to private settlements "characterised either by a personal name or a prominent physiographical feature". Modern names ending in -vÃÂá¸Âàare descended from either ancient names that originally ended in either -pÃÂá¹Âaka or -vÃÂá¹Âaka, or more recent names that originally ended in -vÃÂá¸ÂÃÂ.
An example is DelvÃÂá¸ÂÃÂ. This name is attested in a Maitraka inscription as Devakula-pÃÂá¹Âaka, which would have later been contracted to *DevalvÃÂá¸Âàand then DeülavÃÂá¸Âà(which is attested in a Chaulukya inscription) before finally reaching the present form.
In Maharasthra, the term vÃÂá¸Âàrefers to a built-up area, with or without an enclosure, belonging to a private citizen.
From Sanskrit, meaning "dwelling" or "residence" (of either an individual or a group). This suffix is especially common in northern Gujarat. Some places, such as Jetalvasana, contain the entire suffix without any modification. Others, like Chadasana, Jhulasan, Lunasan, Nandasan, and Ranasan (all of which are mentioned in medieval inscriptions with the suffix -vasaá¹Âa), have had the suffix modified to -saá¹Â(ÃÂ) or -san(ÃÂ) over time.
From Sanskrit vÃÂá¹ÂikÃÂ, meaning "orchard" or "garden". Commonly paired with tree names, e.g. SiswÃÂrë. Some examples with tribal names are also found; these are probably references to an individual person; examples are BharwÃÂrë and LodhwÃÂrë.
(): - -abad is a Persian "dwelling of" or "town of", combined with a person's or group's name (usually the founder or primary inhabitant(s)) — e.g. Hyderabad; Islamabad; Mirza Abad; Ashgabat; Leninabad; Vagharshapat; Sardarabad; Sardarapat . Being a generic and an ambiguous term referring to small isolated farms, village (but not city) on one hand, and towns and cities, on the other hand. See also abadi (settlement).
Means "port" () — e.g. Bandar Abbas; see
Means field, desert () — e.g. Hulandasht; see
From Perso-Arabic iḥtimÃÂl, meaning "probability". In historical South Asian revenue terminology, Ihtimali referred to flood-prone lands along river banks or in low-lying areas. Ghair Ihtimali meant the opposite, i.e. not liable to flooding during the rainy season. These were used in place names to distinguish two villages with the same name, such as Todarpur Ihtimali and Todarpur Ghair Ihtimali in present-day Aligarh district, India.
From Arabic khÃÂṣṣ, meaning "selected" or "private". In India, it was historically used to refer to a place managed directly by the government or by a jagirdar, without any intermediaries. For example, Jamal Mohd Siddiqi identifies six places with "khÃÂs" in their name in present-day Aligarh district, India. All six were founded by Rajput chiefs during the Mughal period, and they all occupy a prominent position on high ground. KhÃÂs is also sometimes used in cases where there are two villages with the same name; in this case, khÃÂs is affixed to the older and/or larger one.
Means "neighborhood" () — e.g. Kordkuy; see
(in various languages) shrine, grave, tomb, etc. (from ), cf. "Mazar (mausoleum)". The placename usually refers to a grave of a saint, ruler, etc.: Mazar-i-Sharif; see
Derived from Arabic mazraÃÂ, which originally refers to a farm field. In parts of India, though, the term refers to a hamlet or cluster of houses that is separate from, but subordinate to, a larger village. (The reason for the hamlet's separation is so that farmers can be closer to their crops.) Places with Majra in their name typically originated in this manner and later became independent villages of their own.
Derived from Arabic milk, meaning "possession" or "property". Like chak, it was historically used to designate a rent-free piece of land. Milk in particular usually designated land held by Muslim zamindars.
Derived from Perso-Arabic munzabt, meaning "confiscated". For example, the village of Raipur Munzabtah in Aligarh district got its name because it was confiscated by the British government after its pattidar participated in the Indian Rebellion of 1857.
From Arabic mutafarriqÃÂt, literally meaning "miscellaneous". This was used historically to denote a fiscal or administrative unit consisting of various scattered pieces of land. Villages called "mutafarriqat" are so named because they belonged to such a unit.
Derived from Arabic niá¹£f, meaning "half". For example, the village of Marhauli Nisfi Ashrafabad in present-day Aligarh district was formed by taking out a half portion from Ashrafabad.
From Perso-Arabic ra'iyyat, meaning "subjects, peasants, cultivators". It is used, for example, in the name of Lalpur Raiyyatpur in present-day Aligarh district, which likely originated as a settlement of peasants under the zamindar of nearby Lalpur.
Means "city" — e.g. Bulandshahr
Means fort, fortress, castle; see also "Qalat (fortress)" â e.g. Makhachkala, Akhalkalaki, Solzha-Ghala, Dzaudzhikau
Persian-Urdu, taken to mean neighborhood in Indian context. For example, Daryaganj, Sunamganj
Refers to a granted habitat, also sanctuary from the Persian suffix, bastë'— e.g. Basti Maluk, Azam Basti
, river, e.g., Nahr-e Mian; see
Means (irrigation) canal
Means "tent" — e.g. Dera Ghazi Khan, Dera Ismail Khan
Examples: Darabgerd, Dastagird, Dastjerd, Khosrowjerd, Farhadgerd, Stepanakert, Tigranakert
Means "a place abounding in...", "place of..." — e.g. Afghanistan; Pakistan